A social group is a collection of two or more people who interact repeatedly, influence one another and are conscious of belonging together. Reciprocal interaction, not physical nearness, is what makes a group. C. H. Cooley (1909) identified the primary group, marked by intimate face-to-face association, such as the family. Later writers contrasted it with the secondary group, which is large, formal, impersonal and organised around a specific goal.
This note covers the meaning, characteristics and types of social groups for the UPSC Anthropology Optional. It falls under Paper I, topic 2.2 (social groups) of the Anthropology Optional syllabus.
Meaning and definition of social group
| Scholar | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anderson and Parker (1966) | Groups are units of two or more people meeting in the same environment, or overcoming distance by some means of communication, who are influencing each other psychologically. The distinctive bond of the group is reciprocal interaction. |
| MacIver and Page | Any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationships with one another. |
| Ogburn and Nimkoff | Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group. |
Friends in conversation, a committee at work and children playing together are all groups.
Group, aggregate and category
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Aggregate | People who happen to be in the same place, without lasting interaction | Passengers on a bus |
| Category | People who share a characteristic but do not interact as a unit | All persons aged 20 to 25 |
| Group | People in recurrent interaction, aware of their common membership | A family; a village council |
Characteristics of social groups
- Two or more persons. A group needs at least two members.
- Reciprocal interaction. Members influence one another; this is the distinctive bond.
- Recurrent relations. The interaction is not temporary; it follows an organised and persistent pattern.
- Consciousness of membership. Members are aware of one another, and this awareness shapes their behaviour and marks the group off from others.
- Common characteristics or interests. Members share something that brings them together.
- Stability. Because interaction recurs, groups are among the most stable units of society.
- Functions. Groups meet the needs of their members and perform functions, such as socialisation, that society requires.
Primary group
Charles Horton Cooley introduced the concept in Social Organization (1909). He observed intimate and close relations among the members of certain small groups and called them primary groups. He defined them by "intimate face-to-face association and cooperation", emotional involvement, identification with the group and sentiments of loyalty. The family, the children's play group and the neighbourhood were his main examples.
In a primary group, feeling matters more than size. The group is the product of long, intimate and informal interaction, and the relationships are ends in themselves, not means to other ends.
Characteristics of the primary group
| External characteristics | Internal characteristics |
|---|---|
| Physical proximity of members | Common objectives |
| Small size | Relations are ends in themselves |
| Stability and durability | Relationships are spontaneous and personal |
| Continuity of relations | Relations are inclusive: the whole person is involved |
| Informal control over members |
Importance of the primary group
| For the individual | For society |
|---|---|
| Develops personality | Transmits culture from one generation to the next |
| Increases efficiency | Carries the norms of society to its members |
| Fulfils psychological needs | Provides social control and maintains order |
| Ensures that social roles are performed according to norms |
Secondary group
Cooley did not himself name the groups that are not primary. Later writers came to call them secondary groups, often meaning those that depend on indirect media for communication (Faris, 1937).
- Ogburn and Nimkoff: groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy can be called secondary groups.
- MacIver and Page: primary relations are characteristic of simple societies. As population, territory and interests grow, indirect, impersonal and utilitarian relations become necessary. They called the resulting bodies "great associations", typical of industrial and urban societies.
In a secondary group, relations are formal, impersonal, segmental and utilitarian. People deal with one another because they need each other's services, and so treat each other as means, not as ends. Only a part of the personality is involved.
Characteristics of the secondary group
| Characteristic | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Secondary relations dominate | Relations are impersonal, indirect, non-inclusive and contractual. Self-interest encourages individuality. |
| Voluntary membership | Members are usually free to join or leave. The state is an exception, where membership is compulsory. |
| Large size | Physical proximity is not required, so membership may spread across a country or the world, as in a political party, a trade union or an international association. |
| Goal-oriented | Each arises for a specific purpose and brings together people with the same need. |
| Indirect communication | Members may rarely or never meet. They rely on post, telephone, print, broadcast and social media. |
| Position depends on role | Standing rests on achieved status and the role performed, not on birth or ascribed status. |
Primary and secondary groups compared
| Basis | Primary group | Secondary group |
|---|---|---|
| Size | Small | Large |
| Contact | Face-to-face | Mostly indirect |
| Relations | Personal, informal, inclusive | Impersonal, formal, segmental |
| Purpose | Relationship is an end in itself | Relationship is a means to a goal |
| Membership | Largely by birth or long association | Largely voluntary |
| Social control | Informal: custom, affection, disapproval | Formal: rules and law |
| Status | Largely ascribed | Largely achieved |
| Typical of | Simple, tribal and rural societies | Urban, industrial societies |
| Examples | Family, play group, neighbourhood | Trade union, political party, corporation |
The distinction is not rigid
- Secondary groups meet most of a person's needs in modern life, but they cannot replace primary groups.
- Every large secondary group creates a network of primary groups within it, such as friendships among colleagues, which supply intimacy in impersonal settings.
- Kingsley Davis pointed out that Cooley's "we-feeling" cannot be the distinctive mark of the primary group, since some such feeling is needed in any enduring community.
- Between the family at one end and the army at the other lie hundreds of groups, some more primary than others. The two types are best seen as ends of a continuum.
Other classifications of social groups
| Scholar | Classification | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| W. G. Sumner | In-group and out-group | The "we" group to which one belongs and feels loyalty, and the "they" group towards which one feels indifference or hostility |
| Ferdinand Tönnies | Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft | Community based on close personal ties, and association based on impersonal, contractual ties |
| Hyman; Merton | Reference group | A group whose standards a person uses to judge himself, whether or not he belongs to it |
| General usage | Formal and informal groups | Groups with written rules and offices, and groups without them |
Social groups studied by anthropologists
- Kin groups: family, lineage, clan, phratry and moiety, recruited by descent and marriage.
- Territorial groups: band, village and tribe, as in Elman Service's classification.
- Age and sex groups: age-sets, age-grades and youth dormitories.
- Associations or sodalities: non-kin groups such as secret societies and clubs.
In the small-scale societies that social anthropology first studied, almost all groups are primary, and kinship is the main principle of recruitment.
Using this topic in a UPSC answer
- Define the group by reciprocal interaction and awareness of membership, and separate it from an aggregate.
- Credit Cooley (1909) with the primary group and note that "secondary group" came from later writers.
- Give the comparison table in five or six rows.
- Add that the distinction is a continuum, citing Kingsley Davis.
- Bring in anthropological examples: lineage and clan as primary groups; a tribal council or cooperative society as a secondary group.
For presentation, see our guide to anthropology answer writing with diagrams, thinkers and case studies.
Frequently asked questions
What is a social group?
A social group is two or more people who interact with one another repeatedly, influence each other, share some common interest and are aware of belonging together. Reciprocal interaction is its distinctive bond.
Who gave the concept of primary group?
C. H. Cooley gave the concept of the primary group in his book Social Organization (1909). He described it as a group marked by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation.
What is the difference between primary and secondary groups?
Primary groups are small, intimate and personal, and the relationship is an end in itself, as in the family. Secondary groups are large, formal and impersonal, and the relationship is a means to a specific goal, as in a trade union or a corporation.
What are the characteristics of a primary group?
A primary group has physical proximity, small size, stability and continuity. Its relations are personal, spontaneous and inclusive, its members share common objectives, and it exercises informal control over them.
What are examples of secondary groups?
Political parties, trade unions, corporations, professional associations and the state are examples of secondary groups. Their members are linked by a common purpose and often communicate indirectly.
What is the difference between a group and an aggregate?
An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be together without lasting interaction, such as a crowd at a bus stop. A group has recurrent interaction and a sense of membership.
What are in-groups and out-groups?
W. G. Sumner distinguished the in-group, the "we" group to which a person belongs and feels loyal, from the out-group, the "they" group towards which the person feels indifference, rivalry or hostility.