Socio-cultural anthropology is the branch of anthropology that studies human society and culture together, treating them as "distinguishable yet inseparable". It was formed in 1948, when A. L. Kroeber merged British social anthropology and American cultural anthropology into a single study. Its scope is universal: it covers all societies and cultures, in all places and at all times.
This note covers the meaning, history, scope, branches and research strategy of socio-cultural anthropology (also written social-cultural anthropology) for the UPSC Anthropology Optional. It falls under Paper I, topic 1.3 of the Anthropology Optional syllabus.
Key points at a glance
- Origin: A. L. Kroeber merged social and cultural anthropology in 1948 and called the result "sociocultural anthropology".
- Growth: it sprouted in 1948, grew during the 1950s and 1960s and bloomed in the 1970s.
- Reason for the merger: both parent branches studied culture as well as society, and differed only in emphasis.
- Scope: universal from the beginning, and enlarged since by new themes and new branches.
- Two main branches: ethnography and ethnology.
- Six research approaches: fieldwork, holistic, comparative, systems and processes, emic and etic, and case study.
What is socio-cultural anthropology?
Socio-cultural anthropology is a relatively young branch that studies the social, cultural and material life of humans as one subject. Kroeber (1948) defined it as:
"a study of culture and society which are distinguishable yet inseparable". (A. L. Kroeber, 1948)
Later scholars stressed its universal coverage.
| Scholar | Definition or view |
|---|---|
| Gopala Sarana (1970) | The study of relations and patterns of life among all societies, as seen through institutions and groups such as marriage, family, kinship, economic activities, political life, religious beliefs and practices, folklore, mythology and symbols. |
| Michael C. Howard (1989) | A study of the "social, symbolic and material lives of humans". |
| Conrad Phillip Kottak (1993) | It studies society and culture, describing and explaining social and cultural similarities and differences, and distinguishes between the universal, the generalized and the particular features of humans. |
| Marvin Harris (1999) | Its scope is universal, and its approach to human life is universal, holistic, comparative and relativistic. |
History: how social and cultural anthropology merged
Social anthropology in England and cultural anthropology in the USA became duplicating sciences, because both proved to be dealing with culture as well as society.
Why the two branches overlapped
- Analytically, each made a distinction between society and culture and gave priority to one of them, depending on its academic lineage.
- Operationally, both studied culture as well as society, because the two are so intertwined that a study of one automatically involves a study of the other (Vogel, 1975).
The two branches also had similar aims. Both tried to understand:
- how human beings live;
- how they manage their environment;
- how they express their bonds of co-operation and conflict;
- how they keep changing their natural, cultural and social environments.
For these questions the dichotomy of culture and society looked superficial, and it did not justify keeping one branch apart from the other (Titiev, 1959; Harris, 1975; Howard, 1989; Seymour-Smith, 1993).
Timeline of the merger
| Period | Development |
|---|---|
| 1940s | Social and cultural anthropology proved similar in aims, themes and theories, differing only in emphasis. Scholars in Britain, the USA, France and other countries wished for their integration. |
| 1948 | A. L. Kroeber took the lead, merged the two and named the result "sociocultural anthropology". |
| Around 1951 | R. H. Lowie preferred a neutral term, "ethnography", for the study of both society and culture. Most scholars did not accept it, as they already favoured "socio-cultural anthropology" (Eggan, 1951). |
| 1953 | The International Symposium of Social Scientists at Geneva appreciated Kroeber's efforts and designated the new branch "social-cultural anthropology" (Morton H. Fried, 1979). |
| 1950s to 1970s | The branch grew during the 1950s and 1960s and bloomed in the 1970s. |
Scope of socio-cultural anthropology
Unlike its parent branches, which began with a limited scope, socio-cultural anthropology has had a universal scope from its emergence. It studies all societies and cultures, past and present, simple and complex.
Its scope has grown in size since the 1970s, as it acquired new themes and new branches. Three features define it:
- Universal coverage: all societies, considered in their diversity across time and space (Kottak, 1993).
- Institutional focus: marriage, family, kinship, economy, politics, religion, folklore, mythology and symbols (Sarana, 1970).
- Three levels of comparison: the universal, the generalized and the particular features of human society and culture (Kottak, 1993).
Branches of socio-cultural anthropology
Socio-cultural anthropology has two main branches: ethnography and ethnology.
| Feature | Ethnography | Ethnology |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Descriptive account of a culture or society at a particular point of time | Examines and compares the results of ethnography |
| Basis | An outcome of fieldwork | Descriptions of different societies and cultures |
| Aim | Ideographic (the particular case) | Identifies and explains uniformities and differences in terms of universal, general and specific features |
Ethnology develops in two directions (Garbarino, 1977):
- Topical specializations: every aspect of culture or society is cultivated as a specialization.
- Area specializations: each deals with the cultures and societies of a specific ethnological zone.
All these specializations are oriented towards theory building about the life ways of humans.
Research strategy: the six approaches
To deal with so vast a scope, socio-cultural anthropology uses a research strategy made up of six approaches.
| Approach | What it means |
|---|---|
| Fieldwork approach | Collecting data from the field through participant observation and "going native temporarily". |
| Holistic approach | Parts and whole are interrelated; the parts can be understood only to the extent that the whole, and how the parts fit into it, is understood. |
| Comparative approach | Comparing cultures and societies to find unity in diversity, in terms of universal, general and specific features, and to derive the regularities or laws governing social-cultural behaviour. |
| Systems and processes approach | Breaking the social-cultural system into simpler systems, studying each in isolation and all in relation to each other, for a comprehensive understanding of the whole. |
| Emic and etic approach | An integrated understanding of social-cultural phenomena through the folk view (emic) and the scientist's view (etic). |
| Case study approach | In-depth study of specific individuals, groups, communities and events, for a complete understanding of the cases studied. |
The ultimate aim of this strategy is twofold: to build theory around the specific themes of study, and to apply data, perspectives, theory and methods to identify, assess and solve contemporary social problems.
Using this topic in a UPSC answer
- Open with Kroeber's 1948 definition.
- Explain the merger: similar aims, different emphasis.
- State that the scope is universal, with Sarana's or Kottak's definition in support.
- Add ethnography and ethnology, and the six approaches, in a short table or diagram.
- Conclude on theory building and the solving of contemporary social problems.
For presentation, see our guide to anthropology answer writing with diagrams, thinkers and case studies.
Frequently asked questions
What is socio-cultural anthropology in simple words?
Socio-cultural anthropology is the study of human society and culture together. It describes and explains social and cultural similarities and differences among all peoples, across time and space.
Who introduced the term socio-cultural anthropology?
A. L. Kroeber introduced it in 1948, when he merged social anthropology and cultural anthropology into one branch and defined it as a study of culture and society, which are distinguishable yet inseparable.
Why were social anthropology and cultural anthropology merged?
They were merged because they duplicated each other. Both studied culture as well as society and had similar aims, themes and theories. They differed only in emphasis, so the division between them looked superficial.
What is the scope of socio-cultural anthropology?
The scope of socio-cultural anthropology is universal. It covers the relations and patterns of life of all societies, seen through institutions such as marriage, family, kinship, economy, politics, religion, folklore and symbols.
What are the branches of socio-cultural anthropology?
The two main branches are ethnography and ethnology. Ethnography is a fieldwork-based description of one culture or society at a point of time. Ethnology compares ethnographic accounts to explain uniformities and differences, and includes topical and area specializations.
What research approaches does socio-cultural anthropology use?
It uses six approaches: fieldwork, holistic, comparative, systems and processes, emic and etic, and case study. Their aim is to build theory and to help solve contemporary social problems.