PREHISTORIC TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION 

The study of prehistoric stone tool technology is important because it tells us the evolution of not only tool or artifact making and its usage, but also because it tells us about human evolution both biological as well as cultural. The tools that people manufactured throughout their long history have been the means by which they augmented their limbs and extended the use of the environment. In the Stone Age, the people used simple tools at their disposal to make the prehistoric tools like handaxe, chopper, scraper and other types as well as pottery, but it is also true that they had a working knowledge of rock types and what rock types would suit what kind of tool manufacturing technique.

IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNIQUES USED BY PREHISTORIC PEOPLE

When we look at the different tools found at different sites across the world, we cannot but marvel at how our ancestors must have created them. But today when a vast gap of thousands of years separates us from our ancestors, how do we know how they made them, and what technology they used?

Today, when we try to identify and study the different techniques the prehistoric people had used, we depend on three factors

• 1) The study of stone tools – When we look at a tool minutely at times it is possible to see how it must have been flaked or worked upon. There are specialists who study the morphological or physical features of the stone tools, and who can surmise how it must have been made.
• 2) Imitation of the tools – There is a large number of anthropologists working in this area which is better known as experimental archaeology where they conduct several experiments to find out what causes will lead to what effects. Some such experimenters are so expert that their products can hardly be differentiated from the century-old stone tools.
• 3) Observation of similar kinds being made by living people – A decade back, and even today, there are some living communities like in Papua New Guinea who still make stone tools and use them. Anthropologists can observe these groups of people and learn more about the technology. 

PALAEOLITHIC STONE TOOL TECHNOLOGY

The beginning and evolution of tool techniques took place during the Pleistocene period, which saw the emergence of Palaeolithic cultures – Lower, Middle, and Upper. The various techniques of manufacture of tools of the Palaeolithic period are discussed below.

Lower Palaeolithic 

• a) Block-on-Block or Anvil Technique In this technique a core or a block of stone to be worked into a tool is struck against another large block or fixed anvil on the ground. This is done by holding the block of stone (to be shaped into a tool) in one hand or both hands and hitting it hard against the anvil. Understandably the flakes removed by this method will be large and massive. On the flakes the elevated portion called the positive bulb of percussion are highly pronounced. While on the core, a deep depression corresponding with the bulb of percussion is seen. Due to the largeness of the block that is used as a core and as hammer (fixed anvil), no secondary working or retouch is possible. Also, the tools made by this technique would be large ones, like chopper and chopping tools. 
• b) Stone Hammer or Direct Percussion : This is the most common method that was used by prehistoric people to make tools. For this, a core of suitable size is held on one hand, while another stone acting as the hammer is held on the other hand. The hammer is then struck repeatedly at suitable points in order to shape the tool. Alternate flaking done on both the surfaces would lead to bifacial flaking. Also since flakes are removed alternately, a zigzag cutting edge or profile line is seen. A prominent bulb of percussion is witnessed in this method. This technique was used for making the Abbevillian handaxes. Since direct blows are given with the stone hammer, therefore this technique is also known as Direct Percussion
• c) Cylinder Hammer or Hollow Hammer Technique : In this technique instead of the stone hammer, a bone or a wooden hammer is used. This is the reason why it is called cylinder hammer or hollow hammer technique. Here, shallow and elongated flake scars are seen on the core. When L. S. B. Leakey, the 105 famous palaeontologist working in Olduvai Gorge, noticed shallow flake scars like this for the first time, he felt that these could have been achieved only by using a wooden or bone hammer. Tools made by this technique were first seen in St. Acheul in the Somme river valley in France. The beautiful Acheulian handaxes were made by this technique.
• d) The Clactonian technique was also used in some places to make Lower Palaeolithic tools like the large scrapers and some type of cleavers. This technique is discussed below. 

Middle Palaeolithic 

• a) Clactonian Technique : The name of the technique comes from Clacton-on-sea in Essex, England where tools made on large massive flakes were witnessed. Essentially this is a flake tool technique, that is, a tool made on a large flake. In this technique, starting with a nodule, a sizeable flake was removed. The flakes would have been removed either by direct hammer or anvil technique. These flakes show the following characteristics:
  • a) Flakes are large and massive, and bear a prominent bulb of percussion with ripple marks (occasionally),
  • b) Striking platform makes an angle of 100-120º with the axis of the flake scar, and
  • c) Striking platform remains unflaked and retains original surface. This technique was used to make large unifacial scrapers and ‘U’ and ‘V’ shaped cleavers. 
• b) Levalloisean Technique : This technique is said to be a more advanced and skilful method of tool preparation in comparison to the previous techniques. The name of this technique is given after the site of Levallois Peret in France. Here, unlike the other techniques, the tool (flake) is prepared in advance on the core. Beginning with the rough trimming of the sides of the core, the technique involves the removal of flakes in such a way that the core looks are dressed in a rounded form. Finally, from the prepared striking platform, a blow is given to remove the flake. Thus, this technique has three steps in its preparation: a) Preparing the core, b) Preparing the striking platform, and c) Removal of flake from the core with one blow. Since the resultant flake tool was prepared on the core, the features of a Levalloisean flake are different from a Clactonian flake. The main features include the following:
  • a) Flakes are thin and small, undersurface usually shows one flake scar,
  • b) The positive bulb is small and flat, and
  • c) Striking platform makes an angle of 90º with the axis of the flake scar. The resultant core is also referred to as tortoise core or prepared core, and the technique as tortoise core technique or prepared core technique.

Upper Palaeolithic 

The technique adopted in this period resulted in uniformly thin, elongated and parallelsided flakes commonly known as blades. This technique is termed as the blade technique. This is advancement on the previous techniques.

a) Blade Technique Here, a more or less cylindrical or elongated core is first chosen. One end of this elongated core is struck off to prepare the striking platform. Then the core is held firmly, possibly on the ground, and by using a stone hammer flakes are removed in long grooves. This is done repeatedly, and finally a blow is given at the striking platform to remove a long elongated flake which looks like a modern blade. These stone blades are very sharp and can be used for fine slicing as well. The main features of a blade flake include the following:

• a) Flakes are thin, elongated and almost parallel sided,
• b) The flake scars are also elongated and parallel sided, and
• c) Striking platform makes an angle of 90º with the axis of the flake scar.

At times instead of a stone hammer used in direct percussion, a punch might also be used to remove the flakes from the cylindrical core. Thus, the blade technology sometimes also uses other techniques as a combination in the manufacture of tools which are discussed below:

• i) Punching technique – This technique involves the use of a punch, or an intermediate material, in order to control the flaking. Thus, in between the core and the hammer, the intermediate material used is the punch. This could be either a stone or bone or wood.
• ii) Backing or blunting technique – Once blades are manufacture by the blade technique, then sometimes they are blunted or backed along one border to allow gripping for the tool handler. This is made possible by retouching a selected area, and making one border blunt.

MESOLITHIC STONE TOOL TECHNOLOGY 

In this period, the tools found become much smaller in size – so much so that the tools are referred to as microliths, meaning very small tools. They were also previously referred to as pygmy tools. The technique used in this period is pressure flaking – which refers to the application of pressure to remove flakes. This was a new technique that was developed by the Mesolithic people in opposition to the technique of percussion that was commonly used in Palaeolithic times. Understandably, when pressure replaced striking (percussion), the flakes removed would also be very small. Thus, in this technique the hammer remained in direct contact with the core – and it is pressed hard into the stone core till a narrow, thin, and small flake is removed. It is also understood that only some type of rocks can be used for making tools by using this method.

To make small blades, or micro blades, the technique applied is similar to the blade technique, but instead of striking the core with a hammer, here pressure is applied to remove flakes. Since repeated removal of elongated flakes (by pressure) would lead to flutes, this technique is also known as fluting technique. 

NEOLITHIC STONE TOOL TECHNOLOGY

 In this period, a new technique was introduced. This came to be known as grinding and polishing technique. Here, a stone of suitable size is initially trimmed and flaked. Then the rough edges are made blunt by a technique called pecking. Finally the tool is ground by using some abrasives like sand and water against a hard surface like a rock to get a smoother and sharper surface and edge. In some tools, only the edge is ground. Thereafter, the tool is polished either intentionally by using animal fat, or unintentionally after regular and long use when it accumulates sheen on the surface. Thus, the grinding and polishing method involves the following steps:

• a) Flaking – to get the desired shape and size
• b) Pecking – to blunt the rough edges
• c) Grinding – to smoothen and sharpen the tool
• d) Polishing – to acquire sheen or shine on the tool 

CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY 

Ceramic technology began in the Neolithic period (even though there are reports of it from Mesolithic Jomon) and flourished in the post-Neolithic period. The most common and predominant remains in the Chalcolithic to early historic period is ceramics. Therefore, it is not surprising that the techniques used for pottery making are many and varied. In the following the techniques of making pottery are given:

• a) Clay preparation: Usually clay for pot-making is collected from river banks or large lakes and these are considered the most suitable. These clays are usually rich in mineral content and capable of being moulded and have enough plasticity. The clay that is used is first cleaned of straws and other impurities. It is then mixed with water kneaded into a plastic consistency. However, at times, this clay dough is mixed with a tempering material such as husks of paddy or sand etc., in order to lessen its stickiness. This prepared clay is well-kneaded till it reaches a consistency where it can be given shape.
• b) Shaping Clay: The actual shaping of the pot can be done in two ways – handmade or wheel made. i) Handmade pottery – This pot-shaping technique is performed with bare hands. Here, it can be done by the coil-building method or the mould method. In the coil building method, the prepared clay is arranged in a long coil first, then the coil is added on in order to get a basic shape. This basic shape is then beaten with a beater (usually wooden) on the outside with a polisher inside to give strength (while beating), and the walls are flattened. In the mould method, either a basket or an old pot can be used as a mould to give the basic shape of the pot. Then with the help of the beater and polisher the walls are made thinner and regular. ii) Wheel made pottery – In this method, the prepared clay is placed in the central portion of a wheel which is fixed on a fulcrum. A portion of clay is taken and the wheel rotated regularly. As the wheel rotates, the clay is given shape with the hands. In some places, instead of a rotating wheel on a fulcrum, a turn table is also seen, which is manually rotated. It is seen that wheel made pottery can be very thin and can be used to make pots of different shapes and sizes, depending on the expertise of the potter. The pots which are made either by hand or wheel can then be burnished and slipped. Burnishing refers to a glossy feature that appears on the surface of the pot by polishing with a polisher (in case of handmade pottery), or by repeatedly touching the surface with wet hands (in case of wheel made pottery). Slipping, on the other hand, is a process by which the pot is dipped in a solution of clay and colour – this process not only gives a colour to the pot but also closes up all the pores on the surface.
• c) Firing: The final texture of the pot depends on firing, and how it is fired. Only in open hearth firing with sufficient ventilation, a smooth and uniform texture can be achieved. Uniform supply of air can also be achieved by digging air ducts underneath the hearth or kiln where it is fired. This uniform firing with regular supply of air, referred to as well-fired, usually turns the pot red in colour. In insufficient air supply and un-uniform firing the pottery turns blotchy with patches of red, and the core is usually grey. This is referred to as ill-fired pottery.
• d) Decoration and Painting: Pots may be painted or decorated before firing or after firing. These paintings may be of various colours and designs such as geometric, non-geometric, and naturalistic. On the other hand, designs could be incised, in the form of appliqué, thumb impressions etc.

Further reading for understanding

Some Key Concepts  

Core – A core refers to the main stone from which a tool is made. These cores can vary in size from very large ones to tiny ones. They are usually, but not always, a water-borne pebble which is successively reduced to produce a tool. The selection of core size and type will depend on the type of tool that is to be manufactured. To make Lower Palaeolithic handaxes, prehistoric people in peninsular India used large quartzite cores; whereas in Central India, small cores of flint were used to make microliths in the Mesolithic period. Large tools like choppers and handaxes are also many times referred to as a Core tool, and in some of them the original part of the stone or rock is still visible.  

Flake – A flake is the small (or large) chip (or chunk) of rock that falls off when a core is struck or hit with another stone that acts as a hammer. The point on the core where the hammer strikes is known as point of impact. Without the flakes being removed, we can hardly make a tool on the core. However, sometimes, the flake is itself worked on, by removing smaller flakes, to create small tools like the scrapers and points. These tools are also popularly referred to as Flake tools. Sometimes a flake might have some portions of the original surface as the core is reduced, but a flake tool usually does not show any original surface.  Flaking – This is the process of core reduction that takes place in the making of a tool where a number of flakes are removed. Flaking can be done by either (a) percussion, ie., hitting one stone against another, or (b) pressure, i.e., by placing one stone against another and applying pressure. Usually when a flake is removed from the core, a depression is seen on the core – this is referred as the negative bulb of percussion. On the corresponding point on the flake an elevation or swelling is seen – this is the positive bulb of percussion. Flakings can also be of different kinds –

• a) Primary flaking – This refers to initial flaking that is done on a core to achieve the required shape. These flakes are usually large ones, and show prominent bulb of percussion.
• b) Secondary flaking – This refers to flaking that is done on the initially worked tool after primary flaking. This is done to refine and sharpen the tool, and therefore the flakes would be smaller in size.
• c) Controlled flaking – In this type of flaking the force of the blow is controlled to some extent. If the force of the blow is controlled by changing the direction, i.e., towards oneself, on the core, a step-like feature is seen. However, controlling of force can also be done by changing the hammer used. Therefore, in order to control the force, the tool maker could replace a stone hammer with a bone hammer. 

Hammer – This refers to the object that is used to hit or strike the core in order to remove flakes to shape it into a tool. Hammers can be of different types, shapes and sizes, and of different raw materials. Thus, we can have a stone hammer, bone hammer or even a wooden hammer. However, it is likely that the most commonly used hammer in the past must have been stone.  Striking Platform – A surface that is worked upon on the core and made flat where the hammer will strike in order to detach a flake. In some techniques, the striking platform is prepared, in others it is not