Definition and Scope
Environmental archaeology has been variously defined. Some of the definitions are given below: Environmental archaeology is the human ecology of the past; seeking to understand the relationships between past human populations and their environments (Boyd, 1990). It is concerned with the community ecology of ecosystems in which the genus Homo and its immediate ancestors were active elements (Coles, 1995). It is directed toward understanding the dynamic relationship between humans and the ecological systems in which they live. Environmental archaeologists apply information and techniques from the natural sciences to studies of the human past through analysis of archaeological deposits (Reitz et al., 1996). Environmental archaeology is a field directed towards understanding human ecology. The ultimate goal is to determine the interrelationship between culture and environment, emphasizing archaeological research directed towards a fuller understanding of human ecology of prehistoric societies (Butzer, 1982). Environmental archaeology, therefore, is the interdisciplinary study of past human interactions with the natural world – that encompasses plants, animals and landscapes. It studies the mutual effect of humans and environment on each other. The objective of environmental archaeology is not to merely learn about changes in the paleo-environment, but to find out how people of the past adapted to the surrounding natural environment, how they obtained various resources from the natural environment and how they altered the natural environment. A prominent figure in this field is Karl Butzer, who has authored over 15 books on environmental archaeology and related fields.
Types of Environmental Archaeology
Environmental archaeology can be divided into two subfields: (a) Geoarchaeology and (b) Bioarchaeology.
a) Geoarchaeology: In Geoarchaeology, the “environment” refers to the geographical environment. It uses the concepts and research methods of topography, geology, pedology, geography and so on. Geoarchaeologists study a wide range of phenomena, such as global climate, regional distribution of resources (raw materials for prehistoric people) like stone for tools or clay for pots, local geomorphology or topography, and the clues that soil can provide in studies of usage of land in the past.
b) Bioarchaeology: In Bioarchaeology, the “environment” refers to the natural environment. It borrows the concepts and research methods of botany, zoology, anthropology and so on. Bioarchaeology can further be divided into (i) Zooarchaeology and (ii) Archaeobotany. Zooarchaeologists study animal remains from the archaeological context. These studies provide a better understanding of past life ways, human diets, changed landscapes, management of animals, impact of human exploitation on other animal populations, and other interactions between animals and humans. On the other hand archaeobotanists study plant remains that are preserved at archaeological sites including macro remains such as wood, seeds, nuts etc. Because these are fragile, they are only preserved in special conditions (desiccated, charred, frozen, waterlogged, or preserved as impressions in baked clay). They also study micro remains like pollen, phytoliths and spores, often found in the soils, as residues in pottery vessels, or in the sediments of stable water bodies around archaeological sites.
Importance of Archaeological Anthropology
Environmental archaeology often involves studying palaeo-environmental remains to see what species were present at the time, as well as how people interacted with and utilized them. It may also involve examining the physical environment and what resources would have been available to people and how they could be used. This field is also useful when human-made artifacts may be absent from the site, or in cases of earth movement, such as erosion, which may have buried artifacts and features of sites. Reconstructing past environments give archaeologists insight as to what adaptations past peoples needed to undergo in order to survive, and what environmental changes may have played a role in their disappearance. What distinguishes environmental archaeologists from other scholars who study ancient manifestations of these phenomena (e.g., palaeontologists or geomorphologists) is that environmental archaeologists are concerned with the interaction between people and the naturally occurring phenomena. They study how naturally occurring phenomena have been shaped by human activity (e.g., the effect of farming on soil development), how some component of the environment has been utilised directly (e.g., what plants were gathered by a particular society), or how the culture/environment dynamic operated in a particular time and place (e.g., a study of climatic change and its impact on human society) (Driver, 2001).