In concluding this discussion of religion, we may recognize some problems with the
defi nition of religion given at the beginning of this chapter. The fi rst problem: If we
defi ne religion with reference to supernatural beings, powers, and forces, how do we
classify ritual-like behaviors that occur in secular contexts? Some anthropologists
believe there are both sacred and secular rituals. Secular rituals include formal, invariant,
stereotyped, earnest, repetitive behavior and rites of passage that take place in
nonreligious settings.
A second problem: If the distinction between the supernatural and the natural
is not consistently made in a society, how can we tell what is religion and what isn’t?
The Betsileo of Madagascar, for example, view witches and dead ancestors as real
people who play roles in ordinary life. However, their occult powers are not empirically
demonstrable.
A third problem: The behavior considered appropriate for religious occasions
varies tremendously from culture to culture. One society may consider drunken frenzy
the surest sign of faith, whereas another may inculcate quiet reverence. Who is to say
which is “more religious”?