A religious system based on a wide variety of special relationships between an individual or a group and its totem is called totemism.
Totemism is a specific psychological outlook and focused upon a specific level of relationships between a prohibited plant , animal or object and humans , either as individuals or social groups such as clans in ways that are very special and generally long lasting, This psychological outlook is manifested or made visible in many ways in the daily life of people.
Generally totems are animals, plants, geographical features or inanimate objects identified with an ancestor or a group. The group has a mystical relationship with the totem; it believes it as its ancestor. Members of each totemic group assert that they are the descendants from their totem and customarily neither kill it nor eat it. They respect it and worship it. They conduct special rituals in honour of the totem. They have their own myths, beliefs and practices relating to the totem. This whole complex of beliefs and practices is called totemism.
Types of Totemism:
Totemism may be simple totemism or multiple totemism/linked totemism.
- If a group or individual has only one species as its totem, then the association between the group and its totem is called simple totemism.
- If a group or individual has two or more species as its totems , then the association between the group and its multiple totems , then it is called as linked totemism or multiple totemism.
According to A. P.Elkin , simple totemism may be:
- Sex Totemism – In parts of Eastern Australia, members of each sex have a particular species of animal or bird as their totem, a practice which is known as sex totem. Eg:- Among the tribes of Hunter River, New South Wales , wood pecker is the totem of women and the bat to the men. Not only did each sex respected its totem , but quarrels brake out when a man injured a wood pecker or a woman injured a bat.
- Individual totem – The Shamans have individual totems. They don’t kill their totems. They revere their totems. If others try to kill their totems, they punish them by their art of magic.
- Conceptional totem – Among the Arunta in Australia, there are several totemic groups. Membership in the totemic groups depends upon the existence of sacred totemic centres, A child belongs to the totemic Centre nearest to the parent when its mother first becomes aware of her pregnancy, or in native belief where a totemic spirit entered her body. Since men normally live in the vicinity of their totemic centres, and their wives reside with them, it usually happens that a child belongs to the totem of its father , though it is not necessarily the case.
- Clan totems – These are quite common in the primitive world . Eg:- i) Among the Trobriands , clan totems are: Lukulabuta (Sguana), Malasi (Pig) , Lukala (Dog) and Lukawasisiga (Crocodile) . The chief hails from the dog clan. ii) Among the Tikopia , there are four clans: kafuka (Yam) , Tafua (Coconut), Pangarere (Bread Fruit) , Tarmaca (Taro)
- Phratry totem – It occurs among some tribes only. Eg:- Among the Muria Gonds of Bastar, the phratry totems include:
- Bakara(Goat)
- Kachichi(Va)
- Sori(Tiger)
- Nag(Serpent)
- Moiety totem – Occurs in a small number of tribes: Eg:-
- i) Among the Tlingit Red Indians, there are 2 moieties namely, Ravan and wolf
- ii) Bondos of Orissa have 2 moiety totems namely , Ontal(Cobra) and Killo(Tiger)
Origin of Totemism :
- According to Durkheim totemism is the earliest form of religion. Durkheim opined that the religion of the most primitive tribe must be the earliest form of religion. He made a survey of the accounts on primitives. Ultimately he found the Arunta of Australia as the most primitive one. Therefore, he studied the religion of Arunta.
- The Arunta is a food gathering , hunting tribe in South West region of Australia. They live in hordes. The bands combine to form a clan and several clans combine to form a tribe , Each clan has its own ancestor , which is in the form of an animal or a plant , The clan members believed that they have descended from the ancestor. The clan ancestor is carved on a wooden plank and stone slab and this is known as “churinga ”. The “churinga” is the totem. Each totem served as a representation of the clan. Each clan worships its own totem. The totem reveals the image of the group or the collective consciousness of the group. When the group started worshipping its own representation and symbol, totemism had come into being.
- James- Frazer – Gave 3 types of explanation about origin of totemism:
- Conceptional Theory – Primitive man did not have knowledge of the role of sexual intercourse in pregnancy , At that time, primitive men realized that the nearest animal or plant was the cause of conception. That plant or animal which was considered as the cause of conception was accepted as a totem.
- Bush-Soul Theory – Primitives believe that a man keeps his soul in some bush so that he cannot be harmed or killed, since a human soul has taken refuge in a plant or animal , that particular species itself becomes scared and ancestral to the whole group and the descendants
- Cooperative Theory – Totemism arose when people tried to multiply their totemic species and helped themselves be sharing totems as food items for different groups.
- Tylor – According to him, primitives believe that after a person’s death, his soul takes abode in a certain animal or plant species and so the entire species is protected. That means the species has become the totemic ancestor. This had been the basis for emergence of totemism.
- Herbert Spencer – According to him, totemism originated through the misrepresentation of names and nick names.
- Schmidt and Haddon – According to him , totemism is totally a ceremonial discipline. People do not consume that they produce.
Importance of Totem:
A.Secular importance:
- Totemism provides a symbolic basis for the unity of a group of people called often the totem.
- Totemism divides society into complementary segments such as clans, phratries and moieties.
- Totemism is the principle by which a society is organized. A person inherits membership in a totemic group from his or her parent- The relationship between an individual and other members of the totemic group is clearly spelled out by the joint membership in the group. Likewise, the relationship between an individual and members of other totemic groups is also part of the knowledge gained through membership in one’s own group. Thus, the totemic system classifies not only people but also non-human elements of the environment in a way of creating harmony between the social realm and the universe and defining each other’s place in that system.
B.Religious importance:
- Totemism provides a common body of values, beliefs, and customs which every individual in a particular society learns and accepts.
- Totemism is the basis of the moral code of its practioners. The moral basis is in terms of food taboos and incest taboos. It is incestuous for a person to have sexual relations with another group of his or her totemic group.
- Totemism has its symbolic aspect in terms of its verbal demonstration of belief by means of myths and legends, periodical rituals and ceremonies, birth and rebirth of totem, poles, emblems, crests and symbolic designs etc.
- Totemism and the associated totemic myths reveal numerous aspects of culture and society.
Malinowski shows how the myths not only portray and symbols of superiority and inferiority of clans but also validates the political authority of a particular clan among the Trobriand Islanders.
Geertz and Turner show how the myths contain religious syntax and how every myth is a symbolic transformation system used a culture to impose order and meaning on both the non-humans and on ritual and ceremonial practices.
- Totemism promotes a religious outlook according to which people believe that in making their living neither their land as the house of neither their totem spirits nor their relatives controlling other areas, will fail them in terms of food shortages.
- Totemism and sacred act are well correlated. In several cultures, a totem belief system is made tangible through use of special artistic devices, particularly in the form of painting and sculpting in stone , bone and wood . Eg:- Arunta totems are symbolized in daily life by special and very decorative art patterns, use of special objects and by particular myths , songs and stories , language terms and special debates spoken by a kinship group that claims descent form and special affiliation to a totem animal or plant.