There are a number of factors which are responsible for continuity and change in Indian society. Change may occur through adaptation or integration. Adaptation occurs when existing institutions readjust to meet new needs. Integration occurs when a society adopts a new element and makes it part of itself. Of the various factors which have enabled our society to adapt/integrate or fail to adapt/integrate, the most important ones are:
- political independence and introduction of democratic values
- industrialisation
- urbanisation
- Modern education
- legislative measures
- social change in caste system
- social movements and social awareness (like feminism, globalisation and anticasteism).
We will analyse all these factors separately.
Factors of Social Change
Social change is brought about by various factors. These factors are mainly responsible for the differences in the rate and nature of change in different societies and at different times. They may be broadly classified into the following categories:
Biological Factors
Biological factors may be further classified into two types- non-human biological factors, and human biological factors.
The non-human biological factors include plants and animals. They affect the lives of the people in varied ways. Human beings need plants and animals for survival, be it for food, cloth, medicine and other purposes in many different ways as defined by one’s culture. At the same time, man also eliminates or keeps away harmful and poisonous plants and animals by any available means. Man also needs plants and animals indirectly for availing oxygen and other utilities through many processes, including photosynthesis. Besides, the biological environment also keeps on changing as one animal species gains ground at the cost of some other species in the course of struggle for existence.
The struggle for existence of the species is also conditioned by geographic factors. The changes in the
ecological system affect man human lives ad changes the course of his struggle for survival. But
modem man has been able to overcome much of the instabilities through various means of gaining
control over the environment such as domestication of species and other technological know-how.
Human biological factors do affect social change in two ways in main— the genetic character of a
given population, and the quantity, density and composition of population. Although, the influence
of genetic character has not been as important as the latter, it cannot be sidelined altogether. The
intelligence level of Homo sapiens (human beings) from other lower animals (non-human beings) is
enough indication of the capability and potential of human faculty that bears on socio-cultural
development. The human genetic character plays roles in the determination of numbers, composition
and selection of population on one hand and hereditary quality of the successive generations. Human
beings are changing all the time. We are different from our parents in our physical make-up, intelligence
and behaviours. Every individual is not identical with the other either. Nevertheless, it is the change
of genetic character of the human beings, except for the process of mutation and variations in genetic
combination, mat determine the physical and mental make-up of human beings.
Population change, unlike genetic factors, is considered to be one of the most important factors of
social change. Growth in population and also it’s composition have been affecting various aspects of
socio-cultural lives. With the invention of new technologies and enhanced knowledge of health care
and sanitation, the rate of death has decreased greatly over the past two centuries. The decrease in
the death rate has caused an enormous increase in the size of population. Simultaneously, life
expectancy and life span have also increased. Thus, population change has itself become a social
change and factor of further social and cultural changes.
Migration brings about further change by creating a new environment setting after the contact of two
or more alien peoples and cultures with numerous new problems. Migration could also effect to the
processes of acculturation, cultural diffusion and/or social conflict. On the other hand, food
productivity would not improve that fast to be able to catch up with the growing population. There
is a general tendency in India that population increases faster than the food productivity or food
supply. Such incompatible situation could lead to other consequences, such as, an attempt to improve
food productivity by increasing the acreage under cultivation, farming technology or other sources
on one hand and migration, famine, disease or war on the other. There would also be tendency for
checking of population growth by possible means such as family planning among others. Thus, a
population change has itself become a social change and a factor of further social and cultural changes.
Geographical Factors
Geographic changes have been significant factors of social change. There are several instances where
social changes have been brought about by geographic factors. For instance, the complete annihilation
of the inhabitants of Pompeii by volcanic eruptions, the destruction of San Francisco by earthquake
and fire (in 1906), the migrations of the Irish population to the United States after the potato famine
in Ireland (in the 1840s), the migrations of the inhabitants of southern United States to Southern
California due to drought (in the 1930s) and so on. Natural disasters can cause both environmental
and social changes. Victims of a natural disaster may be left without friends, relative, or resources
besides their severe psychological trauma. They may have to abandon their community, or completely
rebuild it.
Ecological change is also a major source of social change in the modem times. Many ecological changes
have been induced by human beings. For instance, the size of a population of a geographic area and
the manner in which the people exploit its natural resources have much to do with ecological change
and social change. Over population of a region, overexploitation of a region/border area due to
social and political conflict, deforestation, construction of large dams, among others, for one reason
or another have caused enormous social and ecological problems in the contemporary world which
are found to be even greater factors of social change than migrations and disasters.
Technological Factors
Technology has been considered as one of the important factors of social change. This is quite true
particularly in the context of the contemporary World. This is for the fact that variation in technology
affects social organization and/or structure of a society in a significant way. However, the magnitude
and the rate of change could differ from one period and situation to another depending on the
availability and use of technology. For instance, change was very slow in the remote past (rehistoricage) when our forefathers used crude implements such as stone tools for their day-today
activities and survival. With the invention of modem technology, things have become very different
with both good and bad effects.
The introduction of machine technology after the inventions and discoveries of advanced and
sophisticated sources of energy and capabilities has brought about drastic changes. In other words,
modem technologies have resulted in revolutionary change, be it industrial revolution, green
revolution, technical revolution, and so on. All these revolutions have been largely responsible to the
change in the mode of production, relations of production, old forms of social organization and
structure, old ideologies, attitudes, beliefs, and traditions. This is so, because man adapts to the change
of material environment caused by technology. We have ample examples of such phenomena.
The invention of gun power, atom bomb, and nuclear weapons have changed the techniques of war.
The opening-up of transport networks due to modern technologies have enabled people to be more
mobile and accessible to other places which would otherwise be impossible in the distant past. The
invention of writing and other modem communication system, such as telephones, internet, etc.,
have made it much easier for people to communicate with each other even in distant places. Likewise,
new technologies in the area of modem medicines have also enormously improved the state of human
health system and its environment.
Industrial revolution has also brought about many changes in the society. The shift from agrarian to
industrial production or from feudalism to capitalism have effected social changes affecting family
relations, religion, and other institutions including the state. In almost the same way, green revolution
does bring about changes in the society.
While modem technology has been a great boon to man, there are also the other dark side of it. This
is mainly due to change of the old ways of life and systems, destructive nature of the technologies
being designed or misuse of technologies for destructive ends. For example, the perceived ill-effects
of technology on the society and its social institutions can be observed in many ways. One such
impact is the disintegration of community life and promotion of individualism. The abuse of modem
technologies to humanity has been quite alarming indeed. We can readily cite a few human-induced
disasters due to modem technologies that are very familiar to us.
Socio-Cultural Factors
Socio-cultural factors have been the most important causal factors of social changes. Man is the most
important player of social change. In fact, man is the originator and the main agent of socio-cultural
changes. Social change has been caused by various human activities in the form of discovery, invention,
diffusion, social movements, and so on. Change is also caused by the attitudes and values of the
people toward innovation in a particular society. There are also variations of attitudes of individuals
within the society. Some individuals would consider the values of the society more seriously than
other fellowmen and vice versa.
Societies located at world crossroads areas of greatest intercultural contact have always been centres
of change. This is so because those societies in closest contact with other societies are more likely to
change more rapidly through the process of diffusion. There are also other agents for intercultural
contacts and diffusion such as war, trade, media, and tourism. On the other hand, isolated areas are
generally centres of stability, conservatism, and resistance of change. Ethnographic evidences show
that the most primitive tribes have been found among the most isolated communities.
Discoveries and inventions have contributed much to the process of social change. This truth is
increasingly realised in modem times after the introduction of modem technological know-how.
Discoveries and inventions are processes of innovations that can alter society. While discoveries are
the act of finding something that has always existed but that was not known earlier, inventions on
the other hand are devices constructed by putting two or more things together in a new way.
The discovery of America led to the massive migrations from Europe and the creation of a new
state— the United States of America. The discovery of penicillin also prevented from various diseases.
Again, the discovery of oil, and other minerals have also brought great social changes in the locality
where it is found. In the same way, the inventions of alphabet, modem state, etc. (social inventions),
automobile, telephone, etc. (material inventions) have caused enormous social changes.
Rate of Social Change
The rate of change is the speed at which change occurs in time and space. The rate of change has
never been the same or uniform at all times. In the remote past, change was observed to be very slow.
Whereas, in the recent times, change has become relatively very fast due to various factors, such as,
new technological inventions, diffusions, and social revolutions. New scientific and technological
revolution through new inventions paved way for the rapid change. For instance, industrial revolution,
which was a great breakthrough in the system of production and distribution of goods that has
brought great and rapid change in the modem times have been largely the result of scientific and
technological inventions.
Social and/or cultural revolution also contributes to the acceleration of social change aside from
technological/material revolution. Revolutionary social changes are large-scale changes in the
structure of a society or a state. Revolutionary changes generally mean major or complete alteration
in the entire basis of structure of a society including its various social institutions, culture, ideas, and
belief systems. Many revolutionary movements for socialism, democracy, nation-state/ selfdetermination etcetera are also responsible for acceleration of social change.
However, we should keep in mind that the rates of change that are being discussed are not the same
for all societies. Even within the same society, there are variations in the rate of change. For instance,
changes in urban areas are observed to be faster than those in rural areas. In the same way, changes
will also be faster in the societies that are more open and receptive to change.
Impact of Social Change
The impact of social change on human society has been a major concern for social scientists, particularly,
sociologists. The impact can be understood in two levels—impact of the individual and group or
society. However, there are different views among sociologists on the nature of impacts on human
society.
There are many sociologists who believe that industrial society alienates individuals from one
another because of the nature of the work. Karl Marx was one of the thinkers who believed that the
move from agrarian to industrial societies would alienate people from their work. This, he felt,
was inevitable because the goods produced would be owned by the factory owner, and not the
worker. There are also other sociologists who think that industrial society would affect human
society. Ferdinand Tonnies and Max Weber, among others, may be cited as those sociologists who
subscribed to the idea that industrial society would affect human relationships, albeit in different
ways.
Sociologists are also aware that modem socialisations and life styles encourage individuals to behave
in a way that would be compatible with industrial life and specialised professions. The media also
plays immense role in influencing the individuals to emulate and adapt to the lifestyles of the middle
class.
The introduction of modem know-how and technology has also caused great problems and anxiety
to human life. The heavy use of automobiles and fuels causes massive pollution and hazardous
emissions. It also pollutes and damages the physical environment that man depends for survival.
The acute demand for fuel and the means to meet the demand have often led to conflicts between
communities and states even to the extent of war. The invention and use of nuclear weapons and
other weapons of mass destruction have caused great concern to humanity. It has, in fact, caused
more insecurity than ever before. The inventions of deadly weapons of mass destruction make us
think as to where we are heading for-towards the end of human civilization, (the end of the world
through World War III) or towards a civilization of great insecurity and uncertainties?
The introduction of modem know-how and technology has also caused great problems and anxiety
to human life. The heavy use of automobiles and fuels causes massive pollution and hazardous
emissions. It also pollutes and damages the physical environment that man depends for survival.
The acute demand for fuel and the means to meet the demand have often led to conflicts between
communities and states even to the extent of war. The invention and use of nuclear weapons and
other weapons of mass destruction have caused great concern to humanity. It has, in fact, caused
more insecurity than ever before. The inventions of deadly weapons of mass destruction make us
think as to where we are heading for-towards the end of human civilization, (the end of the world
through World War III) or towards a civilization of great insecurity and uncertainties?
Explanations of Social Change
One way of explaining social change is to show causal connections between two or more processes.
This may take the form of determinism or reductionism, both of which tend to explain social
change by reducing it to one supposed autonomous and all-determining causal process. A more
cautious assumption is that one process has relative causal priority, without implying that this process
is completely autonomous and all-determining. What follows are some of the processes thought to
contribute to social change.
Natural Environment
Changes in the natural environment may result from climatic variations, natural disasters, or the
spread of disease. For example, both worsening of climatic conditions and the Black Death epidemics
are thought to have contributed to the crisis of feudalism in 14th-century Europe. Changes in the
natural environment may be either independent of human social activities or caused by them.
Deforestation, erosion, and air pollution belong to the latter category, and they in turn may have farreaching social consequences.
Demographic Processes
Population growth and increasing population density represent demographic forms of social change.
Population growth may lead to geographic expansion of a society, military conflicts, and the
intermingling of cultures. Increasing population density may stimulate technological innovations,
which in turn may increase the division of labour, social differentiation, commercialization, and
urbanization. This sort of process occurred in western Europe from the 11th to the 13th century and
in England in the 18th century, where population growth spurred the Industrial Revolution. On the
other hand, population growth may contribute to economic stagnation and increasing poverty, as
may be witnessed in several Third World countries today.
Technological Innovations
Several theories of social evolution identify technological innovations as the most important
determinants of societal change. Such technological breakthroughs as the smelting of iron, the
introduction of the plow in agriculture, the invention of the steam engine, and the development of
the computer have had lasting social consequences.
Economic Processes
Technological changes are often considered in conjunction with economic processes. These include
the formation and extension of markets, modifications of property relations (such as the change from
feudal lord-peasant relations to contractual proprietor-tenant relations), and changes in the
organization of labour (such as the change from independent craftsmen to factories).
Historical materialism, as developed by Marx and Engels, is one of the more prominent theories that
gives priority to economic processes, but it is not the only one. Indeed, materialist theories have even
been developed in opposition to Marxism. One of these theories, the “logic of industrialization”
thesis by American scholar Clark Kerr and his colleagues, states that industrialization everywhere
has similar consequences, whether the property relations are called capitalist or communist.
Ideas
Other theories have stressed the significance of ideas as causes of social change. Comte’s law of three
stages is such a theory. Weber regarded religious ideas as important contributors to economic
development or stagnation; according to his controversial thesis, the individualistic ethic of
Christianity, and in particular Calvinism, partially explains the rise of the capitalist spirit, which led
to economic dynamism in the West.
Social Movements
A change in collective ideas is not merely an intellectual process; it is often connected to the formation
of new social movements. This in itself might be regarded as a potential cause of social change. Weber
called attention to this factor in conjunction with his concept of “charismatic leadership.” The charismatic
leader, by virtue of the extraordinary personal qualities attributed to him, is able to create a group of
followers who are willing to break established rules. Examples include Jesus, Napoleon, and Hitler.
Recently, however, the concept of charisma has been trivialized to refer to almost any popular figure.
Industrialisation
Industrialisation got under way in India in the last quarter of the nineteenth and first half of the
twentieth century. Cities grew around the new industries. Before industrialisation, we had (i) agrarian
non-monetised economy, (ii) a level of technology where the domestic unit was also the unit of
economic exchange, (iii) a non-differentiation of occupations between father and son and between
brothers and brothers, and (iv) a value system where authority of the elders and the sanctity of
tradition were both supported as against the criterion of ‘rationality’. But industrialisation has
brought about economic and socio-cultural changes in our society. In the economic field, it has
resulted in specialisation in work, occupational mobility, monetisation of economy, and a breakdown
of link between kinship and occupational structures; in the social field, it has resulted in the migration
of people from rural to urban areas, spread of education, and a strong centralised political structure;
in the cultural field, it has brought secularisation of beliefs.
There have been three important effects of industrialisation on family organisation: First, family
which was a principal unit of production has been transformed into a consumption unit. Instead of
all family members working together in an integrated economic enterprise, a few male members go
out of the home to earn the family’s living. This has affected not only the traditional structure of the
joint family but also the relations among its members. Secondly, factory employment has freed young
adults from direct dependence upon their families. As their wages have made them financially
independent, the authority of the head of the household has weakened further. In the city, in many
cases, along with men, their wives also have started working and earning. This has affected intrafamily relations to some extent. Finally, children have ceased to be economic assets and have become
liabilities. Although in a few cases, the use and abuse of child labour has also increased, law does
not permit children to work. At the same time, educational requirements have increased, lengthening
dependence upon parental support. Accommodation in the cities is expensive and child-care is
demanding. Thus, work and home have become separated due to industrialisation.
Some sociologists have, however, recently challenged the theory of emergence of nuclear families
due to industrialisation. This challenge is based on the results of empirical studies and the
documentation of the variety of family system’, in different parts of the world. Studies by scholars
like M.S.A Kao, M.S. Gore, and Milton Singer have shown that jointness is more preferred and
prevalent in business communities, and many nuclear families maintain widespread kinties. Several
recent researchers in the industrialised West have also emphasised the supportive role of kin and
their function of acting as a buffer between the family and the impersonal wider world (Abbi,
1970). Social historians too have shown that the nuclear family was prevalent as a cultural norm in
Europe and the United States even before industrialisation. However, it has to be noted that the
supportive role of the kin does not have the compulsory character which is found in the family
obligations of the Indian nuclear family. The youngsters in the nuclear family still willingly follow
the normal responsibility towards the primary kin (such as parents and siblings), solidarity of the
close kin, and some sense of unity of the family, even though living in separate households.
All these changes have modified our family system. While the population movement from the rural
to the urban areas has led to decline in authoritarian power, growth of secularism has developed a
value system which emphasises individual initiative and responsibility. Individual now functions
without any restrictive familial controls.