Family:
The family among the tribes of India, is the most abiding unit. It varies according to the rules of descent, inheritance and form of the residence. The type of family among the tribes in India are groupings, and as such they are generally fivefold;
(i) Patrilineal, patrilocal, patriarchal and patronymic families.
The constituent familial kin encysted are grandparents, parents, father’s brothers, and their wives, sons, and their wives and unmarried children. Married daughters move out of the family of orientation. Most of the tribes belong to this type, and all patrilineal tribes belong to this structure.
(ii) Matrilineal, matrilocal, matriarchal and matronymic families.
The constituent familial kin encysted are parents, their heiress (youngest daughter among Khasi and any daughter among the Garo) and her husband and married children. Married sons and married daughters other than the heiress normally move out of the family of orientation. The matrilineal Khasi and Garo
of Meghalaya belong to this structure.
(iii) Matrilineal, avunculocal or/and patrilineal and patrilocal families.
The constituent kin encysted are those who constitute the matrilineal structure. The Rabha of West Bengal and the Kadar, Kanikkar, Urali, Mala Pandaram and Muthuvan of Kerala conform to this structure.
(iv) Matrilineal and duolocal families.
The constituent kin encysted in the matrilineal structure are: mother, her married and unmarried sons, one daughter who is heiress of the household and her children. The household unit excludes all affinal kin and remains a pure consanguineal group, simply based on the rule of duolocal residence. Only the Pnar/ Jaintia of Meghalaya conform to this structure.
The Pnar/ Jaintia rules of descent and inheritance recall those of the matrilineal Khasi and Garo but they differ in the rule of residence. Among the Pnar the husband on the one hand and, his wife and children on the other reside in respective family of orientation. The husband visits his wife at night only.
(v) Patri-matrilineal and patrilocal families.
The constituent kin encysted are parents and their unmarried children. Only the Kachari of Assam conform to this structure.
Typology of Family
The different types of family organisation that are observed among the tribes of India, are consequent to various forms of marriage and kin organisation.
On the basis of the principal forms of marriage, three types of family emerge.
They are:
1. Monogamous
2. Polygynous
3. Polyandrous
On the basis of the organisation of kin, four types of family emerge. They are:
1. Nuclear
2. Lineally Joint
3. Laterally Joint
4. Lineally and laterally joint
The following table gives some examples from tribal India for the different types of family on the basis of the principal forms of marriage.
| TYPE OF FAMILY | TRIBES |
| MONOGAMOUS | Andamanese, Asur, Dimasa Kachari, Khasi, Mala Pandaram, Riang, Sherdukpen. |
| POLYGYNOUS | Adi, Aka, Apa Tani, Dafla, Gallong, Idu-Mishmi, Sema Naga, Angami Naga, Garo, Lushai, Mikir, Purum, Baiga, Bhumia, Dhruwa, Kamar, Kol, Maria Gond, Paradhan, Tharus, Bhil, Garasia, Birhor, Chero, Maler, Snthal, Bondo, Hill Bhuiya, Kharia, Savara Lodha, Chenchu, Hill Reddi, Yanadi, Mahadeo Koli, Kota, Kadar, Kanikkar, Muthuvan, Urali. |
| POLYANDROUS | Gallong, Jaunsari, Toda and Khasas |
The table given below are some examples from the tribes in India for the different type of family based on household composition of kin.
| Family type | Tribes |
| Nuclear | Apa Tani, Angami Naga, Ao Naga, Rengma Naga, Sema, Naga, Dimasa Kachari, Toto, Hill Reddi, Kamas, Yanadi, Mala Pandaram, Andamanese, Onge. |
| Lineally joint | Adi, Aka, Gallong, Sherdukpen, Tangsa, Puram, Garo, Khasi, Mikir, Tharus, Bhuiya, Dhurwa, Kol, Maria Gond, Birhor, Santal, Saoras, Chenchu, Bhil, Garasia, Urali. (Parental and children genereation) |
| Laterally joint | Dubla, Idu Mishmi, asur, Maler (Only married siblings and their children) |
| Lineally and laterally joint | Lodha, Riang, Bhumijs, Chero, Ho, Kharia, Mahadev Koli |
Polyandry in tribals
Polyandry refers to the practice of polyandry, whereby a woman has two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry was mainly prevalent in the Kinnaur Region, a part of Himachal in India which is close to the Tibet or currently the Indo-China border. As mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, the Pandavas were banished from their kingdom for thirteen years and they spent the last year hiding in this hilly terrain of Kinnaur. A minority of the Kinnauris still claim to be descendants of the Pandavas and thus justify the practice of polyandry. However, this is a debatable issue as Kinnauris existed long before the Pandavas as mentioned in the epic.
Apart from Kinnaur, polyandry was practised in South India among the Todas tribes of Nilgiris, Nairs of Travancore. While polyandrous unions have disappeared from the traditions of many of the groups and tribes, it is still practiced by some Paharis, especially in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Northern India.
Recent years have seen the rise in fraternal polyandry in the agrarian societies in Malwa region of Punjab to avoid division of farming land.
Causes for Polyandry
1) Traditional aspects
✓ Scarcity of women due to female infanticide and foeticide
✓ Cultural beliefs
✓ Solidarity of sibling group
✓ Prolonged absence of husband
2) Economic Aspects
✓ Agricultural society- to prevent fragmentation of land
✓ Scarcity of resources
✓ High bride price
Lineage:
Next to the family, lineage forms as an important unit of a tribal society. A group of families having a common ancestor combine to form a lineage is based on demonstrated decent. All tribes have lineages. The Bhils call a lineage as Nal and the Mundas and Oraons call it Khunt. The Rabhas designate it as Hur.
The lineages among some tribes like the Mundas and Oraons works dominant ones and subordinate ones. The lineages are segmented in some tribes. Among the Rabhas of Assam, the lineages are segmented into major lineages (hur) and minor lineages(bars) . The lineages are segmented in an elaborate way in some tribal societies like the Khasas. The Khasas have six lineage segments, namely inter-village, village, Lineage Group, Lineage, sub-lineage and family. These are as follows:
Inter-village (Dai Chara (brother hood)) > Village (Village Dai chara) > Lineage group Alas ( Collateral Aaals , Affinal Aals , Affiliated ) > Lineage (Aal) > Sub-lineage (Bhera) > Family.
The lineage system of Khasas has five aspects:
(a) The lineage functions in the absence of clan
(b) Lineage system is a graded structure,
(c) Territorial connection of the lineage system exists
(d) Tribal differentiation in the lineage system.
(e) Local differentiation in the lineage system.
Clan:
The clan is an important unit of tribal social structure. It is an exogamous division of a tribe, the members of which are held to be related to one another by some common ties, may be belief in descent from common ancestor, possession of a common totem or habitation of a common territory. Thus, it is based on stipulated descent. The Gonds call a clan gotra, the Jaintias call it a Kur and the Bhumijs designate it Baraj. The clan organisation occurs among almost all Indian tribes. The clans are named. They are exogamous. They are dispersed groups. Majority of the tribes have class based on totemic principle as totem occurs in wide areas of the tribal society. For example, the most populous tribes like the Santhals, Bhils, Oraons, Mundas and Hos and the small tribes like the Birhor and Chenchu have totemic clans.
There are some tribes like the Gonds which have clans like the gotra of the Hindus named after saints (rishis). The Gonds have named their clans after mythological saints such as Vasishta, Kashyapa, Dadhichi etc. There are a few exceptions to the universality of clan organisation. The Malers of Rajmahal Hills, the Kadars of Cochin Hills and the Andamanese of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are examples of this category. They are clan less. But they regulate marriages on generational or territorial grouping by forming local groups. These local groups function almost like clan groups. So, these are functionally established clans or local groups. The clans among the tribes in India may be classified into the following types:
- Patrilineal clans. Examples are: Aka, Purum, Lodha, Birhor, Oraon, Santhal, Pradhan and Hill Reddi
- Matrilineal clans: Examples are Jaintia, Khasi and Garo.
- Bilineal clans: Example is Dimsa Kachari
The clans may have sub-clans. For example, the clans of Hos and the Bhils are divided into sub-clans. The Purty clan of the Hos consists of seven sub-clans these split up clans may or may not allow marriage between one and another. This spitting up of clans into sub-clans is either due to their migration or adoption of new cultural traits or by circumstances which force them into merely doing some acts. It is only after a long time when a clan group increases in depth and extension and establishes links and affinities with another group in the vicinity that it gradually loses its relations in the parental group though still aware of their primary affiliations. For instance, the parmer clan among the Bhils, have subclans like the Dhararya, Pipria, Devodia etc. Dhar, Pipere, Derod etc are names of places. Thus, sub-clans have territorial names.
Phratry:
A few among the tribes in India have phratries. The Raj Gonds have four phratries. Each phratry consists of several clans. These phratries are: (a) Yer Ven saga (phratry of seven brothers), (b) Sar Ven Saga (phratry of six brothers), Se Ven Saga (phratry of five brothers), and Nal Ven Saga (phratry of four brothers).
The Angami Dubla, Muria Gond and Bison Horn Muria maintain phratries. Muria Gond has five phratries. Bison Horn Maria has four phratries.
Moiety:
Moiety organisation is rare among the tribes in India. The Ao Nagas have two moieties namely Chungli and Mongrens which include phratries, clans and families. The Bondos have two moieties namely Ontal (cobra) and Killo (tiger). The Toda are divided into two moieties, Tartharol and Teivoliol. The Tartharol includes 12 clans while the Teivoliol includes 6 clans. The Andhs have two moieties, Vartali (pure) and Khaltati (illegitimate).
Sub-tribe:
In the Himalayan region, the Rengma Nagas are divided into two groups: The Eastern Rengmas and the Western Rengmas. The Birhors are divided into two sub-groups namely Janghi and Ulthn. The Kharias of Jharkhand are divided into three sub-tribes viz, Hill Kharia, Dudh Kaharia and Dhelki Kharia. The Korwas of Palaman have also two sub-tribes: Hill korwas and Plain Korwas. Among the Khonds of Orissa, there are several sub-tribes like Kutia Khonds, Dongaria Khonds, Desya Khonds, Tikiria Khonds, Yenity Khonds etc. the Koyas of Andhra Pradesh have several sub-tribes like Rajahor or Rasa Koyas, Lingadhari Koyas, Gutli Koyas et. The Savaras in Andhra Pradesh include the Kapu Savaras, Maliya Savaras, or Khutlo Savaras. The Jerangs of Orissa have two sub-divisions namely the Thaniya and the Bhagndiya In Western India, in Gujarat, the Parhis have two sub-tribes viz, Adivichincher and Phanse Pardhi. The Naikdas also have sub-divided into four sub-tribes viz, Choliwala Nayakas, Kapudia Nayakas, Moto Nayakas, and Nana Nayakas.
Tribe:
L.P. Vidyarthi and Rai (1976) identify the following as features of a tribe in India.
- (a) A definite territory
- (b) A common name
- (c) A common dialect
- (d) A common culture.
- (e) Endogamy
- (f) Common taboos
- (g) Distinctive social and political systems
- (h) Full faith in their leaders
- (i) Self-sufficiency in their distinct economy.
In Indian a tribe is definitely a territorial group; it has a traditional territory and emigrants always refer to it as their home. The Ao Nagas and the Rengma Nagas have occupied a definite area in Nagaland; the Mizos inhabit the north Mizoram; the Purums have their home in Manipur; the Khasas confine themselves to Chakrata tehsil of Dehra Doon. In middle India, the Santhals have concentrated in Santhal Pargana and neighbouring areas. The Hos are found in Singbhum. The Mundas and the Oraons live in Ranchi east and Ranchi west respectively. The Asurs live in the Neterhat area of Ranchi and Palamau districts. The Juangs occupy the Keonjhar and Dhenkanal areas of Orissa. The Murias and the Marias have Bastar as their home. The Bharwads are found in Gujarat. The Nicobaris are confined to Nicobar Islands. Oraon, Santal, or Khonds, working in Assam tea gardens, refer to their respective regions of Bihar, Bengal or Orissa.
Various tribal groups have their own common names which are either generic of territorial in nature. They speak a common language or dialect of their own or their neighbourhood. The Oraons have their own language, Kurukh. The Bhils speak Bhilli. All members of a tribe marry within themselves though exceptions are there in extreme cases. A Munda boy will marry a Munda girl and a Ho girl choses her life-partner from a Ho family. But within every tribe there are groups and subgroups which help in regulating marriage ties and other relations. The Marias of Baster have two very common terms dadabhai and akomama which serve as means of regulating the marriages. A son must not take a wife or a daughter a husband from the father’s clan or from any clan that is a brother-clan or dadabhai to it. He must take a wife from, and she must marry into, some clan that is a wifeclan or akomama of their father’s clan.
The political activities of the tribal India are of their own type and have their own arena. Firstly, the tribe itself is the field in which there may be number of panchayats on different group or sub-group levels. Secondly, patriotism for one’s village is common cause. They have full faith in their village headmen. Sometimes a single man combines in his full faith in their village headmen. Sometimes a single man combines in his person the political, social and scared leaderships of the village. different village officials are assigned their duties.
Among some tribes, villages are grouped into loose unions while among others such groupings relate only to the administration of tribal justice, several villages being represented on one panchayat. The neighbouring non-tribals are also included in the web of their political structure. The economy of the tribes is, to some extent, self-sufficient in a restricted sense of the term and has a distinct feature of its own-exploitation of nature is carried on in the absence of technological aid. Money and monetary institutions are not widely used. The profit motive in economic dealings and accumulation of wealth are generally absent. Mutual obligation, gifts and exchange, co-operative and collective endeavour and periodical markets are the important features of their economy