Scope of Economic Anthropology:
Economic Anthropology describes, analysis and interprets the economic life of all people in their social -cultural contexts in all places at all times. It examines economic life as part of and as submerged in the total social-cultural order.
In this context
- Firth (1939) says that Economic Anthropology deals primarily with ‘’the economic aspects of social relatives”.
- Nash (1966) tells that Economic Anthropology analyses “economic life as a sub-system of society”.
- Beals and Hoijer (1971) say that Economic Anthropology studies “the production of goods and services and their distribution and consumption as these, are institutionalized or formalized in socio-cultural subsystems”.
- Plattener(1989) also says that Economic Anthropology studies economic behaviour as thoroughly embedded in socio-cultural aspects.
The scope of Economic Anthropology is vast. However , during the period of its formation between 1920 and 1950 its scope was restricted to the study of economic life of the primitives . In the past several decades its scope has widened by include the study of economic life of primitives , peasants and modern societies. Thus , Economic Anthropology with its vast scope has apportioned its subject matter among several branches: Anthropology of Subsistence Systems, Anthropology of Economic History, Anthropology of Primitive Economies, Anthropology of peasant Economies, Anthropology of Urban Economies, Anthropology of Entrepreneurship , Business Anthropology, Anthropology of Economic Holism and Anthropology of Economic Development.
Anthropology of subsistence system studies the subsistence systems as part of socio-economic systems. In this context, Forde (1948), Wispel (1917, 1926) and several other examined the complex relationship between humans within a physical and social environment. The focus of attention is on the relationships that create major patterns of socio-economic adaptations: hunting-gathering , horticulture , pastoralism and agriculture.
Anthropology of Economic History studies the evolution of economic systems. MORGAN (1889) , Tylor (1871) and Wheeler (1929) others have shown how simple economic systems gave rise to complex economic systems and how the technology has played a key role in every stage of development of the systems of production , distribution and consumption in diverse societies .
Anthropology of Primitive Economies studies goods and services in simple societies. in this context , Malinowski(1917) , Firth(1927) , Herskovits(1940) , Thurnwald (1935) ,’ Bohannan (1960) and several others are great figures .They have shown how the primitive economies are characterized by simple tools , limited number of tools , little specialization of labour , early work apprenticeship and familial and custodial type of production .
Anthropology of Peasant Economies studies the systems of production , distribution and consumption in rural agriculturists . Nash (1961) , Foster (I960) , woef (1966) , Udy (1970) , and so – on studied the peasant economies have shown how the peasant societies are partly self -sufficient , how the means and results of their production are controlled by the outside elite groups and how the view of limited good characterizes the peasants in several developing countries .
Anthropology of Urban Economies deals with the economic life of migrants and poor in urban centres. Gluckvan (1966) studied the voluntary associations of migrants in African towns . Oscar Lewis (1959) examined the culture of poverty among the Sloma peoples in Mexico . Polanyi (1951) , Bohannan (1950) , Sahlins (1960) , Service (1966) and others have shown how the systems of production in simple societies are simple but complex in urban societies , how the division of labour is simple in simple societies but mere complex in urban societies , how the systems of distribution are simple in simple societies but complex in urban societies , how market places only are existing in simple societies but true markets are existing in urban societies , how immediate consumption is common in simple societies as against delayed and conspicuous consumption in urban societies.
Business Anthropology analyses the internal operations of companies, sometimes carrying out cultural audits, potential for products. In this regard, it surveys market It also advises companies that conduct business abroad how they might interact more smoothly with customers and workers of different cultures and use this study to help business improve their efficiency. Anne weber(1986), Brian(1986), Hendrich(1986), Soya(1991), Varisco(1984)and so on are known for their expertise on this field.
Anthropology of Entrepreneurship studies entrepreneurs in primitive, peasant and industrial societies. Firth initiated these studies and Timberg (1980), Mortin(1961), Coehran and Rema (1962), Bonth(1963), Geetz(1963),Singer(1963)and others laid firm foundations for building this branch. Bonth(1963) reports on a series of studies of entrepreneurship in contrasting ecological niches in sparsely settled northern Norway. Geetz(1963, 1967) studied peddlers and processes as entrepreneurs in two towns in Indonesia: Modjukoto and Tarbanra. Hazlehurst(1966)studied entrepreneurs in a North Indian town. Singh(1963)studied 19 families if industrialists in Madras and showed how economic rationality and religious values are accommodative. Epstein(1964) studied two Karnataka villages and showed situations in which entrepreneurs are just beginning to emerge. Cohen (1969) studied Hausa businessmen and their genius for entrepreneurship. Morris and Somerset(1971) examined small entrepreneurs like African businessmen, Indian farmer businessmen and informal entrepreneurs like petty traders and petty manufacturers. Lucy Mair(1984)has shown how the successes of the entrepreneurs depend upon their resourcefulness organizational skills and correct understanding of regional, national and international situations for products and services.
Anthropology of Economic Holism deals with the inter-relatives of economic life and other aspects . Forde (1948) examined economy in relation to habitat and society. Evans-Pritchard(1940) analyzed the inter-relations of Nuer economic and linguistic aspects. Malinowski(1935) examined the close relations between magic and economic life of Trobrianders. Fried(I960, 1967) has shown how economic life and political life are interwoven with each other. Rappopart and Sahlins (1968,1972) studied the inter-relations of magic, religion and economies. Bohannan(1963) analyzed the correspondence of kinship and economy. Kheckhohn (1956) , Clelland (1961), Breer and Locke (1965) studied socialization processes in relation to the inculcation of values an attitudes which affect economic behaviour .
Anthropology of Economic Development deals with a variety of strategies designed for increasing the capacities of national economic systems to improve human welfare . It shows how individuals , nations , and international aid agencies are at adds over how best to achieve economic development and how different personal , political , religious and ethnic beliefs and values may be difficult to reconcile of Economic Anthropology . Anthropology of worked system is another interest .
Economic Anthropology has adopted substantive and formal approaches to study the static and dynamic aspects of economic life of primitive, peasant and Urban societies. Thus economic anthropology has acquired vast scope as it has urban societies developed in the past six decades.