Sir James George Frazer, a leading British anthropologist in his book “ Golden Bough ” , in the beginning of the present century is one of the first to define magic. According to him “magic is ,the technique designed to achieve specific goals by manipulating the supernatural”
Frazer emphasizes that magic is a technique i.e.,.it is an aspect of technology. This technology involves certain skills and competence for manipulating or controlling supernatural i.e., it includes certain actions that can compel supernatural to act in some particular and intended way. Supernatural is that which is empirically unknowable and is believed to be existed.
The specific goals may be the “ensuring of good crops, the replenishment of game, the fertility of domestic animals, the bringing of rains, the avoidance and cure of illness in humans or the harming of crops, the creation of scarcity of game, the rendering of domestic animals infertile, the creation of famine , illness and death in humans i.e. .magic is either meant for good or meant for evil purposes.
Brownislaw Kaspar Malinowski offered yet another definition of magic , magic consists of the superstitious acts and beliefs through which individual try to control nature where technology and natural techniques are insufficient. Malinowski explained his definition with the help of the magical practices of Trobriand Islanders. According to him, The Trobriand Islanders have knowledge concerning their environment. They grow a variety of crops. They skillfully adjust their agricultural activities to the varying local situations. They build canoes and undertake long voyages for trade and fishing. Yam gardens made with the best of care may be blasted by one or another natural phenomenon such as a storm and a heavy rain. Sudden storms may drive a canoe far off course or even capsize it. In such situations the Trobriand Islanders know that their knowledge about nature is limited and that there are factors beyond their control. Neither their considerable knowledge of the crops can protect their crops from the dangers of unexpected storms and winds nor can their commendable navigation abilities save them from the dangers of unexpected winds and other natural calamities. Therefore in all such helpless situations the Trobriand Islanders take recourse to magical acts. Malinowski theorized that the function of these magical acts is to alleviate anxiety in the face of uncertainty. thus he argues that belief in supernatural forces other than supernatural beings and procedures for manipulation of those forces and the result of applying such procedures is magic.
Both Frazer and Malinowski argues that magic is primitive science because it comes into existence when the rational techniques are insufficient to control natural phenomena. While Frazer argues that magic came into existence earlier than religion. Malinowski said that magic came into existence when people tried to alleviate anxiety in the face of uncertainty. Further both agreed that magic is an aspect of technology.
FORMS OF MAGIC
Frazer’s Classification: Sir James George Frazer classified different magical practices into two forms on the basis of the laws or principles of thought associated with those – practices. , He found that magical formulae are based on two principles of thought.
- Like produces like or an effect resembles its cause. This principle is the Law of Similarity.
- Once in contact always in contact or the things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after they the physical contact severed. This principle is the law of contact.
According to Frazer, two forms of magic follow the two principles of thought or laws of magic. In Frazer’s terms the magic that is associated with the law of similarity is Homeopathic Magic, imitative magic or mimetic magic and the magic that is associated with the law of contact is Contagious Magic.
(a) Homeopathic Magic is the most familiar form of magic. In Frazer’s words it is the attempt which has been made by many people in many ages to injure or destroy an enemy by injuring or destroying an image of him, In the belief that, just as the image suffers, so does the man and that when it perishes he must die. For examples Homeopathic Magic : Oraons of chota Nagpur : rolling down stone resemble thunders of rain. Khonds of orissa > human scarifies > blood sprinkles resemble rain
(b) Contagious Magic is the magical sympathy which is supposed to exist between a man and any severed portion of his separation such as hair or nail , so that whoever gets possession of human hair or nails may work his will , at any distance upon the person from whom they were cut. It applies all over world in all the societies.
Firth’s Classification: Raymond Firth classified different magical practices into three forms on the basis of the aims, the ends or the functions they serve.
(a) Productive Magic includes magic of hunting, magic of fertility, magic of rain-making, magic of security, magic of successful or abundant harvesting , fishing , successful courtship and love making, canoe and sail magic , and magic associated with successful trade and barter. It is performed, either by private individuals for themselves or by specialist magicians for others or to groups or community as a whole. It is socially approved. It serves as a stimulus effort and as a factor for organization of economic and social activity.
(b) Protective Magic includes taboos to guard property, magic to assist collection of debts, magic to avert misfortune, magic for the cure of sickness, magic to safety in travel and” magic to counter misfortune, sickness and danger in travel. Protective magic is performed either by private individuals for themselves or by specialist magicians for anther , to a group or to the community as whole. To protect crops and cattle , effigies or decorated pots are placed upright in the fields. to protect cattle , amulets may be hung around their necks or horns. To safeguard oneself against misfortune, against malevolent spirits and other forms of evil one may wear amulets. To cure the sick a magician may use spells, rites, medicines, talismans, amulets and any other magical elements. To ensure safety in measures such as amulets, talismans, charms and objects of magical powers may be worn. all such protective magic is socially approved.. But counter-magic in the form of beneficial sorcery is sometimes socially approved and sometimes socially disapproved. Generally speaking/ protective magic serves as a form of social control.
(c) Destructive Magic includes magic to destroy others property, magic to produce sickness, magic to bring death , magic to produce scarcity of hunting game , magic to create failure of crops any other harm or destruction done to plants , individuals , group or the whole community . destructive magic is in the form of harmful sorcery and witchcraft.
Other Classification: Several anthropologists classify different magical practices into two distinct forms, namely Black Magic and White Magic on the basis of the ends to be achieved. The use of magic, supernatural beings or other supernatural powers to deliberately harm or destroy another person, group, community, cattle, crops, property, or personal achievements is known as black magic, it is malicious and anti-social. The use of magic, supernatural beings or other supernatural powers to do good to another persons, group, community, cattle, crops, property or personal achievements is known as white magic. It is beneficial to the individual and society. It has social approval.
Black magic may be homeopathic magic and contagious magic. It is destructive magic . Both sorcery and witchcraft come under black magic. On the other hand white magic includes both protective magic and productive magic. It include homeopathic and contagious magic.
ELEMENTS OF MAGIC
According to Raymond Firth (1958), magic involves three elements – The practitioner; the practical aim or end to be achieved; and the magical formula.
The Practitioner: Raymond Firth says that the practitioner of magic may be an individual himself or a specialist such as a shaman, magician or priest. When and individual has an objective which cannot be coped through ordinary means or which requires the assistance of a supernatural being, he may either practice magic or employ someone, possibly a shaman, a magician or a priest to perform the magic.
The Practical Aim: According to Raymond Firth the practical aims or ends for which it is often used have wide ranges includes protective, productive and destructive aims.
The Magical formula : Firth says that there are three aspects of magical formula . one , things used known as instruments or medicines . Second, things done known as rites. third, things spoken known as spells. The things done or the rites are either simple or complex. Rite constitutes the preparation of the medicines, the manner in which the medicines are combined, and the placement of the medicine either on or near that which is to be influenced. Magic may involve either one rite or a series of rites. Further, the rites maybe simple or they may be elaborate and complex.
MAGICAL PRACTICES IN PREHISTORY
Appearing from aboriginal tribes in Australia and New Zealand to rainforest tribes in South America, Bush tribes in Africa and pagan tribal groups in Western Europe and Britain(as personified by Merlin, based on Welsh prophet Myrddin Wyllt), some form of shamanism and belief in a spirit world seems to be common in the early development of human communities. According to Joseph Campbell, the ancient cave paintings in Lascaux may have been associated with “the magic of the hunt.” Much of the Babylonian and Egyptian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources.
Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and transformed into monarch and bureaucrats, so too did shamans and adepts evolve into a priestly caste.
This shift is not in naming alone. It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonian, Persian, Aztec, and Maya Civilizations.