Introduction:
The tribal languages in India belong to several families. Among these families the Dravidian language family is in South India and a few pockets inmiddle India in Chotanagpur and north-western border near Baluchistan. Another language family, “Austro-Asiatic”, is found in certain pockets in the north-eastern
Himalayan region in Meghalaya, in Nicobar Islands and extensively in middle India and adjoining western India. The third language which is traced on the map and is prevalent all along the Himalayan region is Tibeto-Chinese. The IndoEuropean language is found in the remaining, major, part of India. These all suggest a drift from north-western to southern India and then in the pockets of middle India in the caste of Dravidian languages.
There is much controversy over the origin of the Austro-Asiatic language. W. Schmidt named the Munda languages as Austro Asiatic. In 1928 Heine Geldern suggested that the Mongoloid people entered India from the north-eastern side and brought with them the Munda languages which later spread in middle India. But Hutton opines that the Austro-Asiatic language was brought by the Kolarians through the west
end of the Himalayas. The Tibeto-Burmese language entered our country from the north and spread all along the Himalayas.
G.A Grierson’s classification (1903-1922):
G.A. Grierson carried out a linguistic survey of India between 1903 and 1922. according to him there are 170 languages and 500 dialects in India. The languages fall under 4 families: (a) Aryan or Indo-European (15 major languages), (b) Dravidian (14 major languages), (c) Kol or Mundari (41 languages) and (d) Tibeto-Chinese (100 languages). According to Grierson, the tribal languages in India belong to Dravidian,
Kol or Mundari and Tibeto Chinese families. The Dravidian languages are located in South India and Central India. These languages include Gondi (Gonds), Kui (Khonds), Kurukh (Korku), Oraon (Oraon), Malto (Rajmahal Hills, Bihar), and Todua (Todas).
The Tibeto-Chinese family includes several small speeches. Some of the languages are: Manipuri, Lushai and Garo. All tribes in the seven north-eastern states in India speak Tibeto-Chinese languages. The Tibeto-Chinese languages are more recent than the Munda languages.
The kol or Mundari family is the most ancient one. The Munda, Santhal Ho, Kharia and Bhumiji, of Chota Nagpur, Korku of Madhya Pradesh, and Savara and Gadaba of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, Khasi of Meghalaya and Nicobarese of Andaman Islands speak Kol or Mundari languages.
S.K. Chatterjee’s Classification (1945) : According to S.K. Chatterjee the tribal languages in India belong to three families namely: (a) Dravidian Family, (b) Austro-Asiatic (Nishada) Family and (c) Sino-Tibetan (Kirata) Family.
L.P Vidyarthi and Binay Kumar Rai in their book “The Tribal Culture of India” put forward the following classificatory system of the languages of Indian tribes:
I. Austro-Asiatic Family:
The Khasis and the Jaintias of Meghalaya speak in language belonging to the Austric language family. Apart from them, the Mundas (Bihar), Santhals (West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Tripura), Hos (Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh), Saoras (Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra and Orissa), Bondos (Orissa) and Korkus (Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) speak languages belonging to the Austric or Mundarian language family as it is sometimes called.
- (a) Mon-Khmer Branch: Khasi and Nicobari
- (b) Munda Branch: Santhali spoken by the Santhals, Gutob spoken by the Gadabas; Kharia of South Munda sub-branch; Korwa spoken by Kodaku; Korku of North Munda sub-branch, Juang of the central Munda sub-branch
- (c) Kherwarian group: Ho
II. Tibeto-Chinese sub-family:
1. Siamese-Chinese sub-family. Tai group-Khampti, Phakial, etc.
2. Tibeto-Berman sub-family:
(i) Tibeto-Himalayan Branch –Bhotia of Darjeeling.
(ii) Western sub-group of Pronominalized Himalayan group-Chamba, Lahauli, Swangali, Kanauri, etc.
(iii) Non-Pronominalized Himalayan Group-Rong or Lepcha, Toto, etc.
(iv) Arunachal Branch-Aka or Hrusso, Abor, Miri, Dafla, Mishmi, etc.
(v) Assam-Burmese Branch:
(a) Bara or Bodo group-plains Kachari, Dimasa or (Hill) Kachari, Garo, Tripura, etc.
(b) Naga Group
(i) Naga sub-group, Angami, Ao, Sema, Rengma, etc.
(ii) Naga-Bodo sub group-Kachcha Naga, Kabui Naga, etc.
(c) Kachin Group-Singpho.
(d) Kuki-Chin Group-Manipuri, Thado, Sokte, Ralte, Lushai, etc.
III. Dravidian Family.
All the tribes of southern India as well as the Gonds and Oraons of central India speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family. The Gondi language spoken by the Gonds who spread from Uttar Pradesh to Andhra Pradesh and from Maharashtra to Orissa belong to this language family. Other languages belonging to this family is the Kui language which is spoken by the Kandh of Orissa, Kurukh spoken by the Oraons of central India, Tulu language spoken by the Malerus of Karnataka. The languages spoken by the Todas, Palliyans and Irulas of Tamil Nadu, the Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh, and Kadars of Kerala also belong to the Dravidian language family.
IV. Indo-European Family
The tribes of Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Indo-Gangetic Plain speak languages belonging to the Indo-Aryan language family. Some of the languages belonging to this family include Chattisgarhi, Gujarati; Marathi,Assamese; Oriya; Baigana spoken by the Baigas; Banjari spoken by the Banjaras; Bhili spoken by the Bhils;
Dardic spoken by the Broqpas; Gujjari spoken by the Gujjars; Lamani spoken Migrant Tribes / Nomads
by the Lambadis; Baghelkhandi spoken by the Paos,
The entire group of Austric language speaking people and 80 percent of the Tibeto-Burman speaking people are identified as tribal communities. On the other hand a meagre 3 percent of the Dravidian language speaking people and almost 1 percent of the Indo-Aryan speaking people are identified as tribal people.
There is yet another language family spoken by the tribes of the Andaman Islands like the Great Andamanese, the Onges, Jarawas and the Sentinelese. They are loosely called the Andamanese language family.
Tribal Language Loss
Language is the only tool for expressing identity and culture as well as one of the greatest emblems of human diversity. Ayesha Kidwai of the Centre for Linguistics, School of Language, Literature and Culture Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, told Down To Earth, “Tribal languages are a treasure trove of knowledge about a region’s flora, fauna and medicinal plants. Usually, this information is passed from generation to generation. However, when a language declines, that knowledge system is completely gone. With the loss of language comes the loss of everything in culture and loss of solidarity, the loss of Man himself.”
There are 7,000 living languages in the world and around 3,000 are considered as ‘endangered’. This means that almost half of the planet’s current linguistic diversity is under threat.
The situation in India is alarming. Some 197 languages are in various stages of endangerment in our country, more than any other country in the world. Ganesh N Devy, founder-director of the Bhasa Research and Publication Centre, Vadodara and Adivasi Academy at Tejgadh, Gujarat, said, “India may have lost 220 languages since 1961. There were 1,100 languages since 1961, based on the Census number of 1,652 mother tongues. Another 150 languages could vanish in the next 50 years.”
Linguistic expert Devy documented 780 living languages and claims that 400 of them are at risk of dying.
There are five tribal languages that are moving towards extinction in India. Linguist experts say that the most threatened language is Majhi in Sikkim. According to a research conducted by People’s Linguistic Survey of India, there are just four people who currently speak Majhi and all of them belong to the same family.
Similarly, the Mahali language in eastern India, Koro in Arunachal Pradesh, Sidi in Gujarat and Dimasa in Assam are facing extinction. Until recently, UNESCO has put Asur, Birhor and Korwa in its list of the world’s endangered languages with Birhor being categorised as ‘Critically Endangered’, with just 2,000 speakers left.
According to UNESCO, any language that is spoken by less than 10,000 people is potentially endangered. In India, after the 1971 census, the government decided that any language spoken by less than 10,000 people need not be included in the official list of languages.
From 1971 onwards, the Census has been counting only of those languages that have more than 10,000 speakers. It resulted in a decline in the list of languages to 108 languages in the 1971 Census, as against 1,652 a decade ago.
While the danger of extinction looms large over some languages, many other languages have been thriving. For example, Gondi (spoken in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra), Bhili (Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat), Mizo (Mizoram), Garo and Khasi (Meghalaya) and Kokborok (Tripura) are showing an upward trend because educated people in these communities have started using these languages for writing.
“They publish poems, write plays and perform them. In some of the languages, even films are being made. For instance, they have started making films in Gondi. The Bhojpuri film industry is prospering. The language itself is growing, probably the fastest in the country,” Devy said.
Two major tribal languages that are included in the Eighth Schedule, namely Bodo and Santali, have also shown declines, though not negative growth. The number of Bodo speakers in Assam declined to 4.53 per cent of the total population in 2011, from 4.86 per cent in 2001. It shows a total decadal percentage increase of 9.81. On the other hand, Santali shows a total decadal percentage increase of 13.89.
Situation in Odisha
Odisha has one of the most diverse tribal populations in India, with 62 tribes, including 13 particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs). There are 21 tribal languages and 74 dialects which immensely contribute to the linguistic diversity of the state.
Only six tribal languages — Santali, Ho, Soura, Munda and Kui — have a written script. Santali has already been included in the Eighth Schedule. The state government adopted the Multi-Lingual Education (MLE) programme in 2006 to address the issues of language barriers faced by tribal children.
The Odisha government has appointed 3,385 tribal language teachers for the MLE programme. Additionally, the state government published dictionaries for 20 tribal languages. These not only enable scholars and enthusiasts to learn languages but also produce literature — ultimately conserving the existing ones.
In 2018, the state proposed inclusion of three major languages — Ho, Mundari and Bhumji — in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. There are around a million Ho speakers in Odisha, 0.6 million Mundari speakers and 0.3 million Bhumij speakers.
However, the various initiatives undertaken by the Odisha government to promote tribal languages in schools has not yielded the desired results. The state government has indeed produced primers in several languages for the initial primary grades.
But in most cases, the approach was limited to the translation and publication of textbooks or readers. Besides, while Santali was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution since 2003, Odisha has not yet included it in MIL and the Odisha Administrative Services.
Joy Daniel Pradhan, a Delhi-based development practitioner and an expert on tribal development issues said, “Components like teacher training, regular academic follow-up and comprehensive evaluation were largely ignored by the state government.”
If urgent steps are not taken, it is likely to affect the learning of tribal children in the classroom, since learning depends on continuous interest and eternal vigilance, pointed out Daniel.
On a similar note, Srinibas Das, a development professional working with tribal communities in the Kalahandi-Balangir-Koraput region on issues like tribal education, health and livelihood, said, “In many tribal-dominated states, MLE has been implemented without proper planning and coordination. Poor training of language teachers and lack of teaching learning materials are pressing challenges. Language teachers are the key players to ensure the success of the MLE programme that aims to transition tribal children into the mainstream education system.”
Is MTBMLE a solution?
Mother Tongue Based Multi-Lingual Education (MTBMLE) could play a key role in preserving tribal languages, claim linguistic experts. Ignoring mother tongue- based intervention in early childhood for tribal children could potentially impede the early childhood learning process. There are some civil society organisations in Odisha that have demonstrated promising models of the MTBMLE education system.
Take for instance, the Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences (KISS), the largest residential institute in the world providing free and quality education from kindergarten to post-graduation for tribal children.
KISS has been filing up the gap in the learning process among tribal children by implementing a robust MTBMLE approach. It has introduced ‘Transition Curriculum’ — an innovative pedagogic initiative, teaching and learning tools in 10 tribal dialects of the state.
The approach helps bridge the gap between home and school languages and validates the child’s home culture and traditional knowledge, thus enabling better learning.
Sushree Sangita Mohanty, deputy director, MTBMLE, KISS, said, “The MTBLE not only improves the quality of education but also makes holistic mainstream education more accessible for tribal children enrolled in KISS.”
Mohanty explained that the MTBMLE approach had developed significant cognitive reasoning skills among tribal children, enabling them to operate equally in different languages.
The MTBMLE approach facilitates the learning of second and third languages. “Building a strong L1 foundation, the student is then bridged to their second language (L2) by providing strong training in their listening, speaking, reading and writing skills,” added Mohanty.
Way forward
Tribal languages should be endorsed through innovative, cultural and entertainment programmes, suggest linguistic experts. For example, in February this year, a local community radio channel called ‘Asur Mobile Radio’ in Jharkhand launched cultural programmes in the Asur language, which has only 7,000-8,000 speakers.
The Asur community is among the few PVTGs in the state to preserve their language. The Asur language features in the UNESCO list of ‘definitely endangered’ languages.
Manoj Lakra, a Jharkhand-based tribal development expert said, “The Asur community started popularising the language in their area. This has significantly aided the revival of the dying language.”
According to Lakra, local civil society organisations and cultural institutions should make dramas and films in native tribal languages. This will ensure a wider outreach and encourage the younger lot to preserve and respect their language.
“There is a need to promote tribal languages as a medium of communication and education in tribal-dominated districts. It can significantly reduce the communication gap and school dropout rate,” recommended Kadey Soren, deputy director-academics, KISS.
“It is important to integrate indigenous knowledge systems alongside modern sciences in the curriculum of schools. Tribal languages are fundamental to understand the world we live in, our origin, the roots that we all came from and what humans are capable of,” Soren said.
Therefore, it is high time for others to appreciate the important contribution of tribal languages in enriching the world’s rich cultural and linguistic diversity.
Protection and Preservation of Endangered Language
The Government of India is running a scheme known as “Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages” for conservation of threatened languages.
Background
- According to the census 1961, India has around 1652 languages. But by 1971, only 808 languages were left.
- According to the People’s Linguistic Survey of India 2013, around 220 languages has been lost in the last 50 years and 197 has been categorised as Endangered.
- Government of India currently defines a language as one that is marked by a script and effectively neutering oral languages. Therefore, government recognizes 122 languages which is far lower than the 780 counted by the People’s Linguistic Survey of India (along with a further 100 suspected to exist).
- This discrepancy is caused primarily because Government of India doesn’t recognise any language with less than 10,000 speakers.
- According to the criteria adopted by the UNESCO, a language becomes extinct when nobody speaks or remembers the language. The UNESCO has categorized languages on basis of endangerment as follows:-
- Vulnerable
- Definitely Endangered
- Severely Endangered
- Critically Endangered
- UNESCO has recognised 42 Indian languages as Critically Endangered.
Causes For Decline
- GOI does not recognize languages with less than 10,000 speakers
- In and out migration of communities which leads to dispersal of traditional settlement.
- Changing employment pattern which favours majority language.
- Changes in social and cultural values.
- Growth of “individualism”, which puts self interest over that of community.
- Encroachment of materialism in traditional communities allowing spiritual, moral and ethical values being overshadowed by consumerism.
What needs to be done?
- The proven method to ensure the survival of language is the development of schools that teach in languages of minority (tribal languages) which enables the speakers to preserve and enrich the language.
- A vast digital project – on the lines of Project Tiger – for preserving and growing India’s endangered languages must be launched.
- Audio-visual documentation of the important aspects of such language – like storytelling, folk literature and history.
- Existing work from groundbreaking initiatives like Global Language Hotspots can be used to enhance such documentation efforts.
Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL)
- It was instituted by Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India) in 2013.
- The sole objective of the Scheme is to document and archive the country’s languages that have become endangered or likely to be endangered in the near future.
- The scheme is monitored by Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) located in Mysuru, Karnataka.
- University Grants Commission (UGC) provides financial assistance for creation of centres for endangered languages at Central and State Universities to undertake research projects.
Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL)
- Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) was established in 1969.
- It is under the administrative control of Ministry of Human Resource Development.
Purpose
- To coordinate the development of Indian Language.
- To bring about the essential unity of Indian languages through scientific studies.
- Promote interdisciplinary research.
- Contribute to mutual enrichment of languages and contribute towards emotional integration of the people of India.
- protects and documents minor, minority and tribal languages.