Social Control

Definition:

Social control is the cultural means to encourage conformity to its norms and values, thereby perpetuating its culture and maintaining its system of social relations.

Theories of Social Control:

1. Sir Henry Maine (in Ancient Law, 1861) propounds a theory that states that:

  1. Custom is what motivates “primitive” people’s conformity to social rules.
  2. The social contract (mutually advantageous agreements) is what “advanced’ people base their interpersonal relationships on.

2. Emile Durkheim, French sociologist-anthropologist, elaborating Maine’s thesis, wrote (in The Division of Labor in Society, 1897):

  1. In simple (mechanical solidarity-type) societies, everyone performs the same kind of work, producing the same kinds of goods and order is maintained by submission to universally acknowledged rules of behavior.
  2. In more complex (organic solidarity-type) societies, individuals are no longer able to provide for all of their needs and enter into contracts with other producers and sellers. Relationships are determined by the exchange of goods and services, not by submission to an all-inclusive code of behavior. The contractual relationship entered into forms the basis of civil law in complex societies.

3. Bronislaw Malinowski (in Crime and Custom in Savage Society, 1926) refutes the clear-cut distinction between “primitive” and “advanced” societies by describing that maintenance of social order among the Trobriand islanders and argues that:

  1. Factors promoting conformity are same for all societies.
  2. The principle of reciprocity is the universal basis of social order: if a person fails to cooperate with his/her neighbor, he/ she risk the loss of the neighbor/s cooperation when needed.
  3. Malinowski may have overemphasized the reciprocity principle, but it still is very important in all societies.

Types of social control:

 There are two types of social control: the internalized and the externalized. Social control acquired through socialization process is called internalized social control. On the other hand, social control acquired on account of sanctions is called externalized social control.

Internalized social controls:

These are forms of social control that are imposed on the “guilty” individual without the direct intervention of society.

  1. Feelings of guilt and shame are examples of the emotions that work internally to control our behavior.
  2.  We learn which offenses are considered objectionable in our society as well as the proper emotional response to “improper” acts.

Strong internalized social controls are usually reinforced by other institutions in society – for example, the Penobscot believe that if they were not affected by magic after committing a crime, they surely would eventually suffer divine retaliation.

Externalized social controls (sanctions):

  1. Social institutions developed to insure conformity to social norms because internalized controls are not sufficient.
  2. According to A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, “a sanction is a reaction on the part of a society to a mode of behavior which is approved (positive sanctions) or disapproved (negative sanctions)
  3. Sanctions may be either formal or informal and vary greatly within a given society.
  4. Sanctions must not be arbitrary; they must be consistently applied , and their existence must be generally known by members of the society.

2. Negative sanctions are, for example: threats of imprisonment , corporal punishment , ostracism

3. Positive sanctions are incentives to conformity, for example: awards , titles , recognition by one’ s neighbors

4. Formal sanctions are imposed because of mandatory legal statutes prohibiting (or encouraging) certain behavior.

5. Informal sanctions are imposed by social pressure and do not necessarily stem from laws.

6. Organized sanctions are those that reward or punish behavior through precisely regulated social procedure. ‘

  1. organized positive sanctions- for example,- military decorations and monetary rewards – play a much smaller role in encouraging proper behavior than do organized negative sanctions.
  2. Organized negative sanctions for example, loss of status or rank. exclusion from social life and its privileges, seizure of property, imprisonment, torture, and the death penalty – are generally referred to as legal sanctions.

7. Diffuse sanctions are spontaneous expressions of approval or disapproval by members of the community acting as individuals, and they may assume many different forms. Examples of diffuse sanctions are:

  1. Satirical sanctions (sanctions of ridicule)
  2. witchcraft beliefs

8. Primary sanctions involve direct community action against an individual.

9. Secondary sanctions are those directed at a person (or group of persons) by another person; backed by the support of the community for example a duel.

Functions of sanctions:

Sanctions are introduced to:

  1. Integrate social factions.
  2. Insure maximum harmony in the community

Social sanction in Primitive Law:

The primitive law is an unwritten law, which has been sanctioned through local customs, and traditions, which are transmitted orally from generations to generations. Thus, primitive law is backed by customs and traditions and its social sanction is related not only to religious practices and usages but also to jurisprudence, philosophy and various other local traditions.

The social sanctions can be broadly divided into two categories – Primary and secondary primary social sanctions are the immediate sanctions that are obtained by an individual in his society. Primary sanctions are of two types – Positive sanction, i.e., approved behaviour and the negative sanction, the disapproved behaviour. Both the positive and the negative sanctions can be again divided in two groups diffused and organized. Some of the social sanctions, whether they are positive or negative, are carried out following a traditional as well as recognized procedure. These come under the organized group. On the other hand, sometimes society expresses the approval or disapproval of the behaviors quite spontaneously. These make up the diffused group.

 Secondary sanctions are concerned more with the actions of persons or groups in their effects on other persons or groups, they include certain procedures acknowledged by; the community. Most of the societies sanction a controlled as well as limited act of revenge for the satisfaction of injured person. But this satisfaction should be proportionate to the extent of an injury. Acts like retaliation, duel and indemnification are the socially approved means that can be grouped under secondary sanction.

Forms of Positive Sanction:

if signifies the appreciation of certain- kinds of behaviour, as observance of social standard is always approved by the society, so an individual following the social norms is not only respected, his position in the society is also raised. The common belief is that, ancestor and other spiritual beings are pleased by good conduct some believe in reward after death. Ao-Nagas is a head hunting tribe. In their society, the individuals who hunt a greater number of heads achieve a higher position in the society. in diffused type of appositive social sanction, an individual is praised for his work; he is respected by his fellow members in the society, In case of organized positive social sanction, special honour is bestowed on a person. He is crowned or glorified in some definite ways Sometimes the community honours him with specific great title.

Forms of Negative sanction:

It is the disapproval for the non-observance of certain social standards, in diffused negative sanction, the force of authority is super nature. This consists of some negative rules, each of which sets a specific form of ideal behaviour , infringement of which definitely evokes the anger of the super nature. This anger in turn harms the transgressor. People of Eddy stone island believe that if a man plucks a fruit from other’s tree without the permission of the owner, he will be punished by the ghost, AS a result, he may vomit blood or his hand may stick to the fruit. This mode of punishment is automatic and these only works for the breach of a taboo. Among the Nagas, eating of goat’s meat is prohibited. They believe that, those who ignore this taboo, the hair become prematurely gray. The Eskimos never violate the food taboo because they believe that a particular Goddess becomes so angry that she will keep the seals away from them, Apart from the ethical and supernatural control, sometimes satires or ridicule acts as a control on unwanted behaviors. Nobody wants to be ridiculed by the society and therefore restrains himself or herself from doing wrong.

Organized negative sanction is characterized by some penalties, which protect the individuals from going to an immoral way and such instances of punishment also help to rectify the behavioral modes for the rest of the members in a society , The nature of penalty varies from society to society on the basis of guilt. For example, we consider the abandonment of a baby or our old parents as a crime but the Eskimos consider this as a perfect act. However, there are different kinds of penalties; Some of the offenders are kept confined for some time. Diminutive social rank and loss of general rights take place in some cases. A few others have to pay a degradation fine. Physical torture is a usual mode of punishment, In case of serious offences; persons are excluded from the community.

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