Émile Durkheim: The Division of Labor and Social Solidarity
In his first classic, The Division of Labor in Society (1893), Émile Durkheim focused on the relationship between the individual and social solidarity. He raised a fundamental sociological problem: How can an individual become more autonomous yet remain increasingly dependent on society?
The Paradox of Modern Independence
Durkheim noted that while modern individuals appear independent, they are actually more reliant on the collective than traditional hunter-gatherers.
- Traditional Societies: A hunter and gatherer, living in a band, possesses all the skills necessary for individual survival.
- Industrialized Societies: Members live independently but rely on others for food, mechanical repairs, and labor valuation. We are socially independent but biologically and economically unable to survive without others.
The Comparative Method and Social Integration
To understand how society stays together, Durkheim utilized a comparative method. Unlike the historical reconstruction methods of Tylor and Morgan, Durkheim contrasted entire societies to identify dimensions of social integration.
Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity
Durkheim proposed that social existence is based on two distinct configurations of solidarity:
| Feature | Mechanical Solidarity | Organic Solidarity |
| Basis of Integration | Common conscience collective (shared states of conscience). | Interdependence of diverse, specialized subdivisions. |
| Social Experience | All members share a common, homogeneous experience. | Heterogeneous parts linked by formal institutions. |
| Individualism | Individual is directly and equally attached to society; weak individuality. | High individuation; unity exists because of the difference in parts. |
| Analogy | A homogeneous mass with no distinct structure. | A complex biological organism with specialized organs. |
| Examples | Australian Aborigines, Tribes of Israel, Native American/African tribes. | The Franks, Early Roman Republic, modern American society. |
The Evolutionary Transition
Durkheim deduced a set of developmental hypotheses to explain the shift from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity.
- Population Concentration: Advanced peoples move from being spread over immense areas to becoming more concentrated, beginning with agriculture and intensifying with the Industrial Revolution.
- The Development of Towns: Towns emerge from the need for individuals to maintain close contact to exchange diverse tasks.
- Dynamic Density: As population volume and density increase, the “struggle for existence” becomes more acute.
- Specialization: Borrowing from Darwin, Durkheim argued that people pursue different economic niches (the division of labor) to reduce competition and allow for coexistence.
The Central Conclusion
The shift from mechanical to organic solidarity results from the greater division of labor. As work becomes progressively divided, the need for integrating structures increases, coordinated around a central “organ” (such as the legal system) that exercises a moderating action over the rest of the organism.
Beyond the Contract: Conscience Collective
Apart from laws and markets, Durkheim argued that a society’s distinctive, common identity is provided by the conscience collective (collective conscience). This concept remains one of the most significant yet misunderstood ideas in the social sciences.