Introduction:
The tribal of India have different levels of economy. No tribal groups have one and only one source of livelihood: mostly they have mixed economy. For this reason, it is difficult to place any tribal group in strictly one particular typology. Nonetheless, several Anthropologists have tried to classify the tribes of India on the basis of their primary means of livelihood.
Vidyarthi and Rai’s Classification:
L.P. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai have classified the tribes of India into eight economic types. However, like other anthropologists, they too emphasized that no particular type is either completely adopted by the tribes or exclusively the means of livelihood for them. Vidyarthi and Rai’s classification of tribes into economic types is as follows.
(i) The forest hunter type:
Tribes coming under this type have mainly three economic resources which vary according to season, cycle and area-(a) Food-gathering, (b) Hunting and (c) Fishing. They are found in small pockets in different states of India. Under this typology are the Birhors, Hill Kharias and Korwas of Bihar; the Chenchus and Yanadis of Andhra Pradesh; and the Onges, Jarawas, Sentinelese, Shompen and Nicobarese in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These tribes living in forests depend for their livelihood on hunting and catching prey like deer, hares, birds, monkeys and fishes. From the forest they also collect roots, tubers, fruits, nuts flowers, leaves, bamboo, honey and wax, and fibres as raw materials for making ropes.
(ii) The Hills cultivator type:
The tribes practising shifting cultivation in hilly areas under this typology. This is done by three techniques; (a) Slash and burn cultivation with the help of axe and digging stick, (b) Hoe -and-burn cultivation, and (c) Terrace-cultivation in Tarai areas. In this type, a land is cultivated for a short period. Later the forest is cleared by either cutting it down or burning and seeds are broadcasted in the ash covered soil. The land is left fallow to renew its fertility.
Meanwhile people search for another land and repeat the process. “Shifting cultivation as the Principal means of livelihood is found among the tribes of North-Eastern region such as in Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and some parts of Assam, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar etc.” The hill cultivators generally inhabit in different hill tracts of the country such as the North-Eastern region tribes in Rajmahal Hill area and in Khasi-Jaintia Hills. The Lushai, the Serna Naga, the Rengma Naga, the Ao Naga, the Khasi, the Garo and many others of this region practise shifting cultivation. The Juang, the Kharia, the hill Bhuiya, the
Kutia-Kandha and the Khond, etc., of Orissa, the Kamar, the Reddy, etc., of Andhra Pradesh, the Baiga of Madhya Pradesh, the Maler of Bihar, the Birhor of Orissa and Bihar are mainly shifting cultivators. The practice of shifting cultivation is known by different names. In Assam, it is known as Jhum, in Orissa Podu, Dahi and Kamana, Penda in Madhya Pradesh. Besides, some tribes have got their own names for shifting cultivation. The Birhors call it Bewar, the Malers refer it Khallu, the Ao Naga call it, Tekongul, and the Kamar practise three types of shifting cultivation known as Dahi, Beora, and Guhad. In English it is described as slash- and- bum or Swidden or simply shifting cultivation.
Under this practice, a particular family or community uses a patch of land for cultivation. After preparing the land by cutting trees and burning them, seeds are sown and covered with ash. The tribal communities who practise shifting cultivation have their own logic behind it. Some of them find it easy, whereas a majority of them do it as a matter of principle.
(iii) The plain agricultural type:
For all the major tribes of India, agricultural of simple type requiring ploughing with two animals, is the main source of their livelihood. They are settled agricultural and the villagers work in extreme co-operation on reciprocal basis at the time of transplanting, harvesting and other occasions. This type is represented by Santhal, Munda, Oraon and Ho of Bihar; the Khasis and Jaintias of Assam and Meghalaya; the Khasas and Tharus of Uttar Pradesh; the Bhils and Korakus of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra; the Minas of Rajasthan; the Koyas of Andhra Pradesh and the Malayales of Tamil Nadu.
(iv) The simple artisan types
The tribes coming under this typology earn their livelihood by basketmaking, spinning, weaving, making pottery, metal-working ironsmelting and making wooden products.
- The Gujjars and Kinnauris of Himachal Pradesh produce wood products;
- The Lohars and Karmalis of Bihar repair the agricultural implements of the agricultural tribes;
- The Chik-Baraiks of Bihar weave clothes for the Mundas and Oraons;
- The Mahalis of Bihar and Irulas of Tamil Nadu, and the Kolams of Maharashtra make baskets, mats and bamboo products.
- Asur- iron smelting
- Agaria-iron smelting
(v) The pastoral and cattle-herder type:
Pastoral societies breed and rear cattle for milk, meat, leather and as draught animals. Some tribes are completely dependent while others raise cattle as an extra source of income. The Todas are purely a pastoral tribe with full commitment to herding. They cling to pastoralism even after the entry of agriculture. The care of buffaloes and the duties connected with the dairy farm are their sole occupation. Even their religion is centred on the buffalo.
Meanwhile some tribes are loosely called pastoralist and treat occupation as a subsidiary one. The tribes of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh belong to this group. The Bhotias of Uttar Pradesh ae midway between pastoral and agriculture.
Nomadic
E.g.: Gujjar of Himachal Pradesh, Bhotias of northern U.P, Siddi, Gaddi, Bakrewal of Jammu and Kashmir
Sedentary
E.g.: Todas, Nageshia, Maldhari and Rabari of Gujarat, Gollas of south India, Kurubas of Mysore, Lambadi or Sugali or banjara of Andhra Pradesh and Mysore.
(vi) The Folk-artist type:
The tribal with singing and dancing, music barding, acrobatics, conjuring, snake-charming etc., as their main occupation, have been placed in this category. Actually, these people are folk-artists and economically depend on their art.
- The Nats of south-eastern Uttar Pradesh earn by singing, acrobating and rope-dancing.
- The Pardhans of Madhya Pradesh are bards of the Gond tribe. Their jokes and humours are enjoyed by the Gonds.
- The Kotas of Nilgiri Hills offer music which is essential for conducting rites
- The Kalbelias commonly known as Saperas earn their livelihood by snake-charming, dancing, singing and magic-shows.
- Madari- Animal play
- Dommara- Acrobatics
(vii) Labourers-type:
Agricultural and non-agricultural tribes with a considerable population who traditionally come from the agriculturist or artisan type, have adopted and economic life of casual workers or labourers and whatever wages get is their income. They may get employment on daily basis. The agricultural work is mostly available in the locality itself within a radius of a few kilometres. The poor and landless tribals in all ‘plain agriculturist type’ can be considered under the typology of ‘agricultural labourers type’.
Non-agricultural labourers mostly work in different industries. The non-agricultural labour type arose due to the increase in population and opening of mines and industries in tribal areas. E.g.: Tribes of Bihar, Orissa
(viii) The skilled, white-collared job traders type
In this topology no particular Indian tribe can be placed. Due to the spread of Christianity and education a very small percentage of all tribals have started earning their livelihood by working in different offices, hospitals, business enterprises, industries and administrative jobs. Due to the percentage of reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in all-India and State government services many tribals are seen working in all types of government or semi-government jobs on equal footing with the non-tribals.
Changes in tribal economy
1. Rise of democratic institutions
2. Various development programmes which provide various avenues for income
3. Culture contact with the mainstream society has affected them both positively and negatively
4. Population stress and land availability has forced the hunting gathering and shifting cultivation types to give up their traditional means of survival
5. Industrialisation and urbanisation has led to rise of land alienation, impoverishment but also led to rise of industrial and white-collar workers.
Thumwald and Herskovits Economic Classification
THE classical classification of Adam Smith and the more recent classifications of Thumwald and Herskovits have been applied thoughout the world in classifying tribes on the basis of their economic life. The scheme presented by Thurnwald is taken as most acceptable in the Indian context and is as follows:
1. Homogeneous communities of men as hunters and trappers, women as collectors
— the Radar, the Chenchu, the Kharia, and the Korwaare some of the Indian tribes falling into this category.
2. Homegeneous communities of hunters, trappers and agriculturists — the Kamar, the Baiga and the Birhor are examples of this type from tribal India.
3. Graded society of hunters,trappers, agriculturists and artisans – most of the Indian tribes fall under this category. The Cheroand the Agariya, among so may others, are famous artisans.
4. The herdsmen
— the Toda and some sections of the great Bhil tribe furnish classic examples in India.
5. Homogeneous hunters and herdsmen — this categry is not represented among Indian tribes. The Todas do not hunt, , nor do they catch fish or birds.
6. Ethnically stratified cattle breeders and traders — the Bhotiyas of the sub-Himalayan region of Uttar Pradesh breed yaks and are itinerant traders.
7. Socially graded herdsmen with hunting, agricultural and artisan populotion