Introduction :
Anthropology has a significant role in tribal development. First let us understand the anthropological perspective towards development which is not the same as those of the technocrat, the economist and the bureaucrat. The following constitute the distinctly anthropological perspective on development:-
- (a) Anthropology approaches the issue, of development in a holistic way. it does not view development in a partial and piecemeal fashion nor does it link development only to economic indicators. It takes it into account factors like quality of life, empowerment and preservation of culture etc.
- (b) The anthropological perspective emphasizes that development is an interlinked and integrated process. A change in educational system of the tribes may lead to changes in other parts of culture. Even a change in feeding patterns may led to changes elsewhere.
- (c) Anthropology approach development in a multi-disciplinary fashion. It makes use of insights from other fields like biology, psychology and sociology etc., in designing and evaluating developmental programmes.
Anthropologists as already mentioned emphasize more on the qualitative aspects. For example, Belshaw says development should be looked upon as an organised activity with the aim of satisfying certain basic needs and to psychologically orient the tribals to adopt new skill, attitudes and life-styles, so that they build up the inner strength, and appropriate social and cultural infrastructure to stand the pressures of the new situation and cultural infrastructure to stand the pressures of the new levels.
According to anthropologists tribal development consists of
- a movement emphasising upon building up organisational structures,
- a programme emphasising on activities,
- a method emphasising certain achievable ends,
- a process emphasising upon what happen to people not only economically and socially but also, psychologically, and
- institutionalisation of newly discovered skills and procedures leading to social change without completely breaking away from the past.
Contributions:
Let us examine the role of anthropology in tribal development more specifically.
- (i) The first major contribution of anthropology is the classification or categorisation of tribals for development purpose. The point has been repeatedly made that in view of regional variation of tribal problems and different economic pursuits and population of tribal groups, there cannot be a uniform policy and strategy towards their development. L.P. Vidyarthi very forcibly argued that any affective tribal development strategy should take into account (a) ecological system, (b) traditional economy, (c) supernatural beliefs and practices and (d) recent influences on tribes. On the basis of these four factors. Vidyarthi classified Indian tribes into. (a) The Forest Hunting Type (b) The Primitive Hill-Cultivation Type (c) Plain Agriculture Type (d) The Simple Artisan type (e) The Pastoral and Cattle Breeders Type (f) Urban-Industrial Workers Type. Even the Shilu Ao committee and later the Planning Commission’s Task force on Tribal Development emphasized the need for a multi pronged approach towards tribes according to habitat and population. Following these committees reports which consisted of Integrated Tribal Development project for implementing the Tribal-sub plan for those areas states where tribes are in good numbers but do not constitute an overall majority, modified area Development Approach for dispersed tribal population and special projects for primitive tribal communities like the Chenchus, Kadars etc.
- (ii) Anthropologists have role is in training of administrators involved in tribal development, such training makes the civil servants at the cutting edge sensitive to tribal way of life and their special problems.
- (iii) Most significant contribution of anthropology has been in suggesting and working out an appropriate and suitable administrative infrastructure for tribal development. Several Committees have recommended setting up single line area developmental agencies for tribal development rather than allocate the task of development amongst several agencies as is the practice in the districts. The Govt. of Indian accepted the idea and introduced and area based single-line comprehensive tribal development agency in many tribal area, the Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDP) in the 5th Plan.
- (iv) Another very useful contributed has been bridging the gap between the experts and local communities. The anthropologists act as some sort of go-between in the utilisation of the expert’s knowledge and the skills of the indigenous people. An interesting example is the scheme of joint forest management and social forestry in Karnataka.
- (v) Anthropology has developed novel and innovative ways of assessing the developmental needs of the local people by generating data and suggestions from the rural tribal populations by techniques like Rapid Rural Appraisal Participatory. Rural appraisal which consists of generating as much information as possible by the locals themselves. The point is that the in any developmental programme, the people themselves are the best Judges, of what they actually need in most cases.
- (vi) Anthropology also have acted as honest brokers in ushering change as and when it is really needed and in the interests of the tribals, like in cases of making them accept inoculation/ vaccintation. They have an advantage in the sense that they enjoy greater credibility amongst the tribals.
- (vii) Anthropology plays a vital role in an objective assessment of the impact of any developmental programmes/project specially on the culture and quality of life of tribals. It also helps in the evaluation of these programmes.
- (viii) Anthropologists also succeed in eliciting greater levels of participation on the part of the beneficiaries by their close contacts with community leaders and tribal folk. Greater levels of participation also ensures effective feedback.
Roy Burman’s suggestions:
In this context, it will be very relevant to mention at length the strategy for tribal development suggested by Dr. Roy Burman a noted anthropologists and exDirector-General of the Anthropological Survey of India former advisor to Government of India, on tribal affairs.
1. Consideration of the strategies of tribal development should cover the following aspects:
- (i) Scope of tribal welfare and development activities.
- (ii) Integration of tribal welfare and development activities in the national development plan.
- (iii) Role of government and statutory bodies.
- (iv) Role of voluntary agencies
- (v) Role of tribal institutions.
2. Welfare and development activities are excepted to be concerned with:
- (i) Satisfaction of minimum needs
- (ii) Control and management of productive resources.
- (iii) Employment optimization
- (iv) Broad based participation of the population in development process.
- (v) Socio-cultural and political aspects of national integration
Conclusion:
It may be noted in conclusion that of late, anthropology has adopted a very activist and at times critical approach towards development in general.
Anthropologists advocated alternative strategies for development emphasizing more on (a) small localised micro projects, (b) involvement of non-governmental organisations. (c) sustainable development oriented programmes and (d) lastly people-focussed and people-led development, not governmental led development.
Other contributions by anthropologists regarding tribal developments
1. Classification of tribes as distinct from caste
2. Identification of tribes and detailed study of each tribe
3. Protection of tribes- approaches
4. Tribal Panchsheel
5. NMS complex and tribal resistance
6. Tribal struggle for autonomy
7. Tribal education and health
8. Tribal research institutes
9. Elwin committee
10.Roy Burman committee
11.Tribal languages
Anthropologists worked on tribes
1. Verrier Elwin
- Tribal Panchsheel
- Elwin committee
- Isolationist and integrative approaches
2. D.N.Majumdar
- Generative or creative adaptation- Integrative Approach
- Ethnographic study of Khasas and Ho
3. L.P.Vidyarthi
- NMS complex
- Development of tribal areas
4. S C Dube
- Tribal sub plan
- Expert committee on tribal development
5. Roy Burman
- National forest policy, 1980
- Deputy registrar general of census
- Concepts of bridge and buffer communities, infra-nationalism, proto-nationalism, post primitive nationalism.
- Work on Toto , Naga Kukis conflict
6. Haimendorf Study of
- The Chenchus (1943)
- 2. The Reddis of the Bison Hills (1945)
- 3. The Raj Gonds of Adilabad (1948)
- 4. Morals and merit (1967)
- 5. The Sherpas of Nepal (1964)
- 6. The Bagoria Bhil (1964)
- 7. The Konyak Nagas (1969)
- 8. Return to the naked Nagas: an anthropologist’s view of Nagaland 1936–1970
- 9. Tribes of India: The Struggle for Survival (1982)
- Posts
- Special officer of NEP
- Advisor for tribes in Nizam
- Study of culture change in Chenchus
- Development of Gonds
During the eight years of his stay in the esrtwhile Nizam’s dominions, Haimendorf not only made in-depth studies of the customs and traditions of the Gond people, among other tribes, but he influenced the Nizam of Hyderabad to bring in protective legislation to insulate them from exploitation by non-tribals.
His most significant contribution to the uplift of the tribes of Adilabad, which is more relevant today, was the legislation of Hyderabad Tribal Areas Regulation 1356 Fasli (1946) and establishment of teacher training schools in 1943 to deal with the debilitating illiteracy.
Haimendorf identified a zone encompassing tribal habitations and notified it to bring protective legislation in the shape of the HTAR which among other things favoured grant of permanent titles to lands traditionally cultivated by the Gonds and empowering tribal panchayats besides barring transfer of land in favour of non-tribals. In his capacity of advisor to the Nizam’s government on tribal and backward classes affairs, Haimendorf persuaded the government to dereserve 1.6 lakh acres of forest land and allocate it to 12,000 tribal families, the patta or title then known as Haimendorf Patta, according to a esearch paper C. von. Furer-Haimendorf: Half a century of his imprint on Tribal welfare in AP
written by Hyderabad-based social anthropologist Urmila Pingle who was an associate of his. Ms. Pingle’s research paper also notes that the number of Primary Gond schools which was 30 in 1946 went up to 90 in 1949 and by 1951, the Marlavai Teacher Training Institute produced 95 Gond teachers, five village officers, one revenue inspector, five clerks and seven forest guards. This was considered a splendid achievement until changes in laws governing the agency areas changed subsequently