Globalization and Women in India
It’s true that we are in the midst of a great revolution in the history
of women. We see the evidence everywhere; the voice of women
is increasingly heard in Parliament, courts and in the streets. While
women in the West had to fight for over a century to get some of their
basic rights, like the right to vote, the Constitution of India gave women
equal rights with men from the beginning. Unfortunately, women in
this country are mostly unaware of their rights because of illiteracy
and the oppressive tradition. The status of women in any civilization
shows the stage of evolution at which the civilization has arrived. India
is a society where the male is greatly revered. Women, get very little
standing in this country. Since women do not take nutritious diet, it
causes malnutrition, especially among pregnant or nursing women.
The literacy rate among women is low compared to men. Very few girls
attend to school or actually attend primary school [6].
As a result of globalization also there is no much change in the
status of women in India, especially women in unorganized sector. They
have been affected by unemployment, long working hours, migration,
family breakdown, child labour, etc. As much as some women have
come to enjoy the growth and foreign capital investment, more women
have found no place to earn a living other than in the informal sector
[7,8].
Globalization, no doubt, has offered tremendous opportunities.
What has been the impact of globalization upon women? This issue
has attracted immense attention of scholars and academics the world
over, with some emphasizing the beneficial aspects of globalization and
insisting that women have generally benefited from improvements in
the world economy [9], while others stress upon its overall negative
impact [10] which includes, but is not limited to a denial of entitlements
as well as a violation of women’s human rights. Central to a realization
of the human rights of women is an understanding that women do not
experience discrimination and other forms of human rights violations
solely on the grounds of gender, but discrimination arises from the
inter-sectionalist of race, caste, class, etc.
Globalization is a double edged process as far as women are
concerned. On the one hand, majority of women in India and other
developing countries find themselves stripped off the benefit of social
security, government subsidy protection of labour rights and the safety
nets. On the other hand, there were possibilities of better education
facilities and opportunities at the transnational sense which are very
attractive to the privileged few. It is, however, necessary to understand
that effective development requires full integration of women in the
development process as agents of change as well as beneficiaries because
Indian women can be utilized as development resources in many ways.
Many critics fear that globalization, in the sense of integration of
a country into world society, will exacerbate gender inequality. It may
harm women-especially in the South–in several ways: Economically,
through discrimination in favor of male workers, marginalization of
women in unpaid or informal labor, exploitation of women in low-wage
sweatshop settings, and/or impoverishment though loss of traditional
sources of income. Politically, through exclusion from the domestic
political process and loss of control to global pressures. Culturally,
through loss of identity and autonomy to a hegemonic global culture.
The adverse impact of globalization upon women’s livelihood,
employment, education, health, etc has been highlighted by numerous
national and international reports (BCR Report, 1987) [11]. Majority
of these reports point out the increase in violence against women;
deterioration of the health system; increase in female headed households
as men lose jobs or are pushed out of their traditional income-generating
roles; shrinking of resources available to women; increasing women’s
total labour hours, etc. “Growth can, and has become for many, jobless,
voiceless, rootless and futureless,” poignantly states the UNDP Human
Development Report of 1996 [11,12].
Bhattacharya and Rahman, [13,14], reported while globalization
and trade expansion resulted in an increase in women’s work
participation in trade-related activities in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka
similar trends in employment were not evidenced in Pakistan. Though faster annual growth in female employment in the tertiary sector was
experienced in the urban areas, evidence based on some micro studies
in an eastern state of India showed that women did move from unpaid
family labour to wage work in Handloom and zari work, and some
found employment opportunities in modernized mills (rayon) [15].
While some of the increase in labour force participation witnessed in
parts of Asia may be due to greater recognition and quantification of
women’s work by enumerators, it is also viewed that there has been a
genuine process of increasing participation by women in most of these
countries [16].
Some case studies based primarily on Export Processing Zones
(EPZs) and export oriented manufacturing units show that women are
better off in EPZs than in domestic industries, especially when their
total remuneration is taken into account [14,17]. Studies suggest that
young single women were preferred while others show that the pay and
working conditions are poor [18]. These areas need to be examined in
detail for delineating the issues and arriving at possible solutions in
view of their long-term implications for growth.
Fontana [6] suggests that trade liberalisation affects gender
inequalities at all three levels that is, macro, meso and micro.
According to this study ‘gender gaps in market participation might
narrow if the sectors that expand are more female-intensive than the
sectors that contract (macro); public provision of social services that
favour women (such as health and education) might be undermined, if
loss of government revenue from reduced tariffs leads to cuts in such
services (meso); female control over household spending is reduced or
extended, depending on whether trade liberalisation destroys or creates
sources of independent income for women (micro)’. DTI [14] has also
analysed the impact of trade on women through three mechanisms – as
producers and consumers of goods, and consumers of public services
(Table 1).
Undoubtedly, globalization with its accompanying Structural
Adjustment Policies (SAP) cannot be viewed as a gender neutral process,
for the accompanying spread of market ideologies and consumerism
have led to increasing feminisation of poverty, casualisation of labour,
increase in violence against women as well as their commodification
among other things. Globalization has recast gender relations and
altered the status and life condition of women. More women work
outside the home in the wage labour force. While this has undermined
traditional patriarchy, it has burdened women with a double load of
work, exposed them to harshly exploitative conditions in the paid
work place, and scarcely improved their material well- being. Women
have suffered disproportionately from globalization, while seeing
few of its benefits; their interests get lost somewhere in the jungle of
globalization, this is particularly true of India. For instance, SAP has
led to the dismantling of the Public Distribution System in India, which
has adversely impacted expenditure on food, which constitutes more
than half of the total monthly expenditure of the average Indian family.
It bears repeating here that lack of food not only increases the economic
burden of women who have to go out to find resources necessary to
purchase food, but they are the ones who eating last in family, get the
least [5].
A look at the Table below reveals that expenditure on food in India
continues to constitute at least 59.41% of the total expenditure in rural
areas in 1999-2000, although it has declined from 63.18% in 1993-94.
The corresponding proportion in urban areas is lower at a little under
50% of total expenditure. Higher the expenditure on food, higher the
burden upon women. Women’s problems are compounded by scarcity
of water in general and safe drinking water in particular. Numerous
studies reveal that women spend at least 2 hours per day in fetching
and carrying water for the household from distant places, sometimes
miles away. ‘Miss Universe’ may want coke and Miss World cry out for
Pepsi, but an overwhelming majority of Indian women only cry out for
safe drinking water.
In a country where a large proportion of the population lives below
the poverty line, emphasis on Coke, Pepsi and bottled water seems
more like saying “if they don’t have bread, let them eat cake.” To the
multinational corporations this seems to make for a favourable climate
for investment, a market worth Rs 48 crores (About 10 million USD),
in bottled water. M.S. Swaminathan once said in lighter vein, “If men
had to fetch and carry water, the water problem would have been
solved long ago”. How true, he was. Scarcity of safe drinking water has
its corollary in the outbreak of numerous water borne diseases. India,
studies reveal, loses 73 million workdays due to water related sickness
every year [23]. This apart, globalization has immediate ramifications
on women’s health. Firstly, there is a growing trend of privatization
of public health services and the introduction of user-fee services for
treatment and medicine despite the fact that a major part of India lacks
even primary healthcare services, with suitable and clean facilities,
and with adequate medical supplies. The removal of price controls on
pharmaceuticals and the opening of domestic markets to multinational
corporations under globalization have added to healthcare burdens.
Spiraling costs of even everyday medicines are a growing barrier
to healthcare. The increased cost of medical care is the second most
common cause of rural indebtedness. The prohibitive cost of health care
results in women placing their health needs at the bottom of the scale
in household priorities, seeking medical care too late or not at all. The
upshot of the entire process is increase in maternal mortality, incidence of communicable diseases including Tuberculosis, Hepatitis B and
AIDS, anaemia among women and curbing of life within the womb
(female foeticide) [24]. The assertions of the votaries of globalization
notwithstanding, the employment growth rate in India has declined in
the nineties as compared to the eighties. The two tables below reveal a
decline in the growth rate of employment as well as an increase in the
incidence of unemployment.
Table 3 reveals the employment growth rate to have been 2.1%
between 1983 and 1993-94, which declined to 1.6% between, 1993-94
and 1999-2000, a decline of 0.5%. The corresponding decline in the case
of females is much higher at 0.8%, from 1.7% to 0.9%. It is significant
to note that the rate of growth of employment for women declined at a
faster rate in urban areas as compared to rural areas.
Corresponding with this decline in the growth rate, the incidence
of unemployment too has increased. Table 4 shows the incidence of
unemployment (combined) for all persons increased by 0.3% between
1983 and 1999-2000. The corresponding increase for males was from
2.3% to 2.5%, but for females, it was higher at 0.5%, increasing from
1.3% in 1983 to 1.8% in 1999- 2000. Significantly, the incidence of
unemployment is higher in urban areas than in rural areas. It is
noteworthy that the incidence of female unemployment in urban
areas increased between 1983 and 1993-94 and declined thereafter. As
against this, the incidence of male unemployment declined between
1983 and 1993-94 and increased thereafter. In rural areas, however, the
incidence of unemployment of both males and females increased over
this entire time period.
A parallel development may be witnessed in the increase in the
percentage of women as marginal workers, particularly in the rural
areas. Undoubtedly, the Census of India, 2001 reveals an increase in
the workforce participation rates for women from 22.3% in 1991 to
25.7% in 2001. But, these statistics hide the fact that the percentage
of women main workers23 has come down from 16.0% to 14.7% in
this period, while that of marginal workers 24 has increased by almost
5% from 6.2% to 11.0%. An area wise analysis reveals this trend to be
more prevalent in the rural areas than in the urban areas. In the urban
areas, as would be seen from Table 5 below, there is an increase in
women main workers accompanied by a corresponding increase in the
percentage of women marginal workers.
The marginalization of women in economic activities has the
added impact of pushing an increasing number of women into the
informal or casual sector, which is characterized by low productivity,
minimal incomes, and a lack of economic and social security, and lack
of enforcement of labour laws. For instance use of new technology in
agricultural production has shifted women into operations which are
unrecorded and unlisted as economic activity, being counted in home
based production, leading to a greater invisibility of women’s work.
Not only are an increasing number of women pushed into the informal
sector, but even in this sector they are to be found at the lower end of
the scale with very few in entrepreneurial positions. Most women are
involved in various kinds of low-income activity, in casual or seasonal
work, often of an unskilled and physically demanding nature, with low
productivity, long hours and little opportunity for upward mobility.
The actual extent of their work in this sector becomes extremely
difficult to gauge because many of them help in carrying out activities
of the production process which are not counted as work at all, like
bringing the clay and water for pottery, or pre-processing the yarn for
textile production.
Here it would be pertinent to point out that while the Census of
India reports an increase in the female workforce participation rates in
general as well as area wise, the Human Development Report of South
Asia, 2001 reveals a substantial decline in work participation rates for
rural women in India. Evidently, male workforce participation rates have shown minor fluctuations over this period. The female workforce
participation rates, on the other hand, reveals a declining trend with
higher work participation rates in the 1970’s to the mid-eighties and
a considerable decline thereafter Not only have rural women’s work
participation rates declined, but the unpaid work burden of women
in agricultural sector has actually increased.25 Shift in control of
forestland, export driven production, consequent fluctuations in world
market prices, free trade in agricultural goods, lifting restrictions on
imports, encouraging switching over from production of food grains
from domestic consumption to commercial crops for export such as
fruits, vegetables and flowers, cuts in public expenditure on agriculture
such as on irrigation, infrastructure development, and research, cuts
in subsidies, particularly on fertilizers and power, permitting sale or
leasing of land to commercial houses, marketing of seeds treated with
terminator technology, retrenchment due to increased mechanization
and the consequent use of female labour to cut costs and increase
profits have all negatively impacted the agriculture based population in
India and led to an increase in the unpaid work burden of women and
girls. Consequently, there has been increase in migration of the work
force; feminization of the rural work force; women have lost access to
the local markets for their products and are dislocated from traditional
forms of livelihood. One interesting corollary of globalization and its
consequent commodification of women may be seen in the immense
increase in the number of fashion shows, sponsored by conglomerates.
The impact of globalization, then, is not limited to the economic
field, but extends over the entire life cycle of women. It has accentuated
the existing disparities and discriminations against women. It is,
indeed, paradoxical that on the one hand, all out efforts are being made
for women’s empowerment, while on the other; women are being
disempowered through globalization. Noteworthy is the fact that the
South Asian region is fast emerging as one of the most deprived regions
of the world, with the largest number of people living in absolute
poverty, of which 60% are women. As Jeanne Vickers [25] very pithily
observes, “When we speak of
the ‘poorest of the poor’, we are almost always speaking about
women. Poor men in the developing world have even poorer wives
and children. And there is no doubt that recession, the debt crisis and
structural adjustment policies have placed the heaviest burden on poor
women, who earn less, own less and control less.” That global poverty is
increasingly assuming centre- stage and its resolution a major issue of
concern at both national and international levels, is revealed by the fact
that the Millennium Development Goals adopted by the UN General
Assembly included among other things halving poverty and hunger by
the year 2015; promoting gender equality and empowering women as
well as developing a global partnership for development.
The Feminization of Labour
It is difficult to arrive at general statements about the specific
effects of Globalization on women, since these are mediated by the
level of development, forms of integration into the world economy
and pre-existing socio- economic inequalities in a particular country.
Nevertheless, and despite country- specific variations, the phenomenon
of ‘feminisation of the labour force’ is emerging as a common theme in
discussions of the ways in which global economic changes and marketled growth have impacted on women.
The term ‘feminization of labour’ is used in two ways. Firstly, it is
used to refer to the rapid and substantial increase in the proportions
of women in paid work over the last two decades. At the global level,
about 70% in the 20–54 age groups are members of the paid workforce.
In developing countries as a group, the figure is lower at 60% [26].
These figures do not capture women’s participation in rural and urban
informal sectors in developing countries which is usually less visible
and therefore undercounted. However, this low wage informal sector
continues to be an important employer of poor women in developing
and transition countries [9]. The term ‘feminization of labour’ is also
used to describe the flexibilization of labour for women and men,
a fallout of the changing nature of employment where irregular
conditions once thought to be the hallmark of women’s ‘secondary’
employment have become widespread for both sexes. Informal
activities, sub-contracting, part-time work and home-based work have
proliferated while rates of unionization have declined [27].
The deregulation of labour markets, fragmentation of production
processes, de-industrialization and emergence of new areas of export
specialisation have all generated an increased demand for low-paid,
flexible female labour. Some researchers have emphasized the poor
wages and working conditions, the precariousness of the work and
the fact that mainly younger women without children are given these
opportunities [28,29].
National Sample Survey data on Employment and Unemployment
in India during 1999– 2000 estimated female workforce at about
124 million. This constituted about 31% of total workforce in India:
More than 88% of female workforce was found to be engaged in rural
areas. The female workforce participation rates were as low as 29.5
% in rural areas and 12.4 per cent in urban locations. As per NPC,
Gender Development Report [5] Employment of women in the public
sector increased substantially during 1981–91 period. However, the
subsequent decade (1991–2000) revealed that the proportion of women
employed in private sector was more than that in the public sector. Yet
women constitute only a low 17.6 per cent of the total employment
in the organized sector (public and private sectors taken together).
Employment of women is the highest (36 per cent of total 43 female
employments) in the traditional low wage activities such as Agriculture,
forestry and fishing. The occupational distribution indicates that the
gender segregation of tasks and the underlying constraints of low levels
of education and skill formation among the female workers confine
them to low paid, unskilled jobs compared to their male counterparts.
Favourable Effects of New Economic Policy on Women
Globalization has opened by broader communication lines and
brought more companies as well as different worldwide organizations
into India. This provides opportunities for not only working women,
but also women who are becoming a larger part of the work force. With
new jobs for women, there are opportunities for higher pay, which
raises self-confidence and brings about empowerment among women.
This in turn provides equality between men and women, something
that Indian women have been struggling with their entire lives.
Globalization has the power to uproot the traditional views towards
women, so they can take an equal stance in society [30].
Globalization brings all women together to act. The modern
development of technology offers the possibilities for women to
communicate more directly through net working both within and across
countries. Computer aided data bases and e-mail are increasingly being
used by women’s groups. Particularly in India, the productive capacity
of women should be increased through access to capital, resources,
credit, land, technology, information, technical assistance and training
so as to raise their income and improve nutrition, education and health
care and status within the household. The release of women’s potential
is essential to breaking the cycle of poverty so that women can share fully in the benefits of development and in the products of their own
labour.
Unfavorable Effects of the New Economic Policy on Women
Globalization has had negative implication for Indian women. Their
plight is similar to those of women in other developing regions such as
Africa and Asia. According to Vandana Shiva, an Indian ecofeminist
and scholar, globalization along with the support of organizations
such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, have
created slave wages. These wages are not necessarily the result of unjust
societies, but of the fact that global track devalues the worth of people’s
lives and work. Though globalization has brought jobs to rural India,
the work available to women is almost always poorly paid, mentally
and physically unhealthy, decreasing or insecure [31].
Women are suffering two fold. As they move into work force, their
domestic responsibilities are
not alleviated. Women work two full time jobs. The mixture of
corporate capitalism and western culture models is dissolving family
and community social controls as witnessed by higher rates
of family violence, rape, divorce and family breakdown [32].
• The traditional role of women in agriculture, livestock and
animal husbandry, khadi and village industries including
handicrafts, handlooms fisheries, etc. is being undermined because
mechanization and automation is becoming prevalent in the
market based economy which will adversely affect the village-based
traditional economy.
• Privatization and reduction of public services will reduce regular
employment opportunities for women.
• Globalization has increased the number of low paid, part-time and
exploitative jobs.
• Occupational sex segregation will be a stark reality in the open
economy. This will tend
to result in worse working conditions, lower pay and inferior career
opportunities.
• Curtailment of state provisions in child care, community care and
social security, will increase the dual burden of employment and
family responsibilities for women in general.
• With male migration on the increase from the rural to urban
sectors, the women have to bear the triple burden of caring, farming
and paid employment in the rural sector.
• In the neo liberal work practices, contract work, unsocial hours
sectors, the women have
to bear the triple burden of caring, farming and paid employment in
the rural sector.
• With the disappearing social and financial safety nets and
government subsidy, the poverty alleviation programmes, universal
education and woman oriented health programes will be adversely
affected.
• Trade liberalization will allow MNCS to enter into food processing
and other ferminised industries which will lead to reduction in low
skilled women labour.
• Privatisation of education and training will increase the cost of
getting educated. When family budgets are readjusted, the female
children will be the main casualty because most of the resources will
be spent to educate the male children.
• Migration of women especially for economic reasons often gives
rise to exploitation and trafficking in women at the local, regional
and global levels.
• Open market economy leads to price rise in food and other
basic necessities. Women who have to directly deal with family
subsistence have to cope with such changes.
Basically, Liberalization and Globalization of the Economy will
marginalize majority of women
in India due to reduction of employment opportunities, reduction
of wages, casualisation of jobs and women workers, execution from the
modernized production process due to lack of education and training
Steps to Cope with the Changing Scenario
It is seen that the situation facing the majority of Indian women is
far from positive. However, efforts are underway to circumvent many
of these problems through governmental and the non- governmental
programmes. Both the government and NGOs seem to be aware of
the fact that the globalization process requires proper focus on rural
development, education, health and child care and proper gainful
employment for the underprivileged at the initial stages.
The price rise associated with desubsidisation, marketisation and
liberal export – import policy, have an adverse impact on consumption
by the poor in general and that of women in particular. The rising food
prices and the reduced are stagnant food subsidies adversely affect
the nutritional intake and the nutritional status of the poor women.
Similarly, the declining real expenditure on medical and health services
adversely affect the status of women as well as children.
Since poverty alleviation programmes are the main responsibilities
of the Government, there are direct and sector wise schemes. Some of
the important schemes are:
• Public Distribution System for Food Security
• Work Security through various Schemes
• Health Schemes and Services
• Child Care Schemes
• Credit Schemes
• Insurance Schemes
There are also sector wise schemes such as Small Farmers
Development Agency and other Schemes of the Department of
Agriculture, Schemes of the Dairy Development Boards in the dairy
sector, schemes of Forest Corporation in the forestry sector etc. The
main goal of the Department of Women and Child Development
is to empower women and to bring them within the purview of the
mainstream development process. Also, the capacities and capabilities
of women addressing their own development have been the main
focus of important NGOs and Women’s Organizations. Innovative
approaches for poverty alleviation such as savings, credit, and asset
creation for poor women have evolved in India as well as in other
developing countries. These experiments have been able to organize
poor women to –
• Strengthen their capacity to survive
• Meet their social needs
• Enter into income generating activities
• Increase their savings
• Utilize the savings along with available credit
• Improve their socio-economic conditions and that of their families
• Sustain the process.
NGOs such as Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in
Ahmadabad, Working Women’s Forum (WWF) in Chennai, Centre
for Women’s Development Studies (CWDS), New Delhi, etc, have done
commendable work in these directions. The Government Departments
have also given the necessary boost to such experiments through the
support for expansion in many ways.
Why are so many people opposed to globalization?
Once popular among business and corporate leaders, the term has
been appropriated more
recently by many groups on the political left. They are opposed to
globalization for several reasons:
• It is used as an ideology by the powerful to deceive the people
about illusory benefits of a dehumanizing system; in other words,
globalization is really a myth that needs to be exposed, a form of
false consciousness that prevents people from seeing their true
interests.
• Insofar as it stands for a real process, it perpetuates the inequity and
exploitation inherent
• in capitalism; globalization polarizes the globe and therefore creates
an even more unjust world.
• It is not subject to democratic control and therefore cannot serve the
interests of the people at large; new forms of democratic governance
and economic regulation will be needed to overcome this problem.
• Due to the scale of change, it intensifies long-standing problems,
such as the deterioration of the environment.
Globalization has thus become a tool in the symbolic politics of
oppositional movements, a rallying cry in their assault on diverse global
ills. In part, this represents the revival of an old-left agenda after the end
of the Cold War and the demise of communism as a viable ideological
option. In part, it demonstrates the opportunities for mobilizing
around new issues (e.g., human rights) presented by the concepts and
networks created in globalization. Among “progressive” forces, it is fair
to say, an anti-globalization consensus has been crystallizing that is also
reflected in ties among activist organizations.
Apart from this progressive opposition, there is also a more
conservative kind. Various religious groups, notably Islamic activists,
oppose globalization because to them it represents a civilization threat:
the imposition of alien values, homogenization of the globe on secular
terms. Their opposition, supported by some nonreligious groups, often
takes the form of a particularistic defense of communal tradition.
Both “right” and “left” opponents of globalization tend to regard the
United States as a hegemonic power that influences globalization to its
own advantage, harming the economic, cultural, and environmental
interests of the rest of the world.
Does globalization diminish cultural diversity?
There are many reasons to think that globalization might undermine
cultural diversity-: multinational corporations promote a certain kind
of consumerist culture, in which standard commodities, promoted by
global marketing campaigns exploiting basic material desires, create
similar lifestyles–”Coca-Colonization” backed by the power of certain
states, Western ideals are falsely established as universal, overriding
local traditions–”cultural imperialism” modern institutions have
an inherently rationalizing thrust, making all human practices more
efficient, controllable, and predictable, as exemplified by the spread
of fast food–”Mc Donaldization” the United States exerts hegemonic
influence in promoting its values and habits through popular culture
and the news media–”Americanization”.
But there are also good reasons to think that globalization will
foster diversity-: interaction across boundaries leads to the mixing
of cultures in particular places and practice—pluralization cultural
flows occur differently in different spheres and may originate in many
places— differentiation integration and the spread of ideas and images
provoke reactions and resistance— contestation global norms or
practices are interpreted differently according to local tradition; the
universal must take particular forms—globalization diversity has itself
become a global value, promoted through international organizations
and movements, not to mention nation-states— institutionalization.
To some extent, the issue of diversity is now the subject of global
cultural politics, and therefore unlikely to be settled by argument
and evidence. Scholars can offer some cautions: whether diversity
diminishes depends on what yardstick you use (e.g., linguistic diversity
may be more threatened than culinary diversity) homogenization and
heterogenization may actually operate in tandem or even reinforce
each other.
Possibilities and Opportunities
On the positive side, globalization has contributed to bring about
welcome changes in the lives of women who have been able to avail
of the opportunities, which have opened up in the various sectors of
development. These are –
- Enhanced opportunities for women in sectors as a result of
marketization, privatization and larger foreign investment - The scope for productivity and wage increase is greater with new
technology - A large number of opportunities in the export oriented industries
such as computer software, modern food processing, handicrafts
where India enjoys comparative advantage are now available to
women - The rapid growth expected from the new economic policy is
expected to generate large employment opportunities for both men
and women. Besides, the policy will provide greater opportunities
for migration and vertical mobility - The introduction of modern household gadgets is expected to
reduce the drudgery of women associated with the domestic work. - The new economic climate under which decentralization,
individualized based working is likely to increase may reduce the
burden on the women. Women can perform some of the jobs at
home without sacrificing the other tasks such as home managers,
child bearers, and care takers. - Prospects of higher and quality education have become feasible for
those women who can afford them, economically and socially. - Employment in technological and other advanced sectors, which
have global bearing, has opened up for suitably qualified women. - With changing attitude towards women, especially in the urban
areas, women enjoy more egalitarian set of gender relationship,
10.Augmentation of women’s movements through exposures at
the international level will help bring about major changes in the
economic, social and political lives of women. - Reduction in gender inequalities will have positive effect on
women’s empowerment in the socio-economic context.
12.Attitudinal changes towards women’s role in the family due to good
education, benefits of family planning and health care, child care,
good job opportunities etc., will surely help in the development of
more confident and healthy women
13.Positive approach to economic and cultural migration will facilitate
women to be exposed to better prospects at the international level
[33].
Can globalization be controlled?
The issue of controlling or regulating globalization concerns
elite officials of states and intergovernmental organizations as well
as opponents of neoliberalism in pursuit of global justice. They often
share a sense that the current thrust of globalization may be irreversible
and out of anyone’s control. They have several good reasons to think
so: one of globalization’s driving forces, technological innovation, is
inherently unpredictable globalization results from the interplay of
many parties (economic and political), none of which exerts dominant
influence old regulatory agencies devised by states cannot control
processes that exceed their territorial authority apart from minimal
rules of competition itself, the world lacks a single set of rules that
serves to regulate transnational behavior. This concern has given rise
to a now-fashionable interest in “global governance,” or the design of
institutions that authoritatively manage and regulate actions, processes,
and problems of global scope or effect. While some believe such
governance is desirable but lacking, others think it is in fact emerging
in the work of various international organizations and groups active
in civil society. Though advocates of global governance portray it as
enhancing democracy, defenders of traditional democratic values and
state interests have questioned such claims.
Conclusion
Globalization has” reduced the ability of women in developing
nations to find paid work that offers security and dignity” [1].
Although women’s roles in the Labor force have changed from
traditional agricultural and domestic roles, to manufacturing and
assembly production, the overall effect of globalization (based on the
literature used in this analysis) has proven to be negative. There are
empirical claims of women gaining more autonomy over their own
wages and a feeling of independence from traditional gender roles
in society- especially in marriage and childrearing. Women are also
becoming the breadwinners in most households because of the lack of
male responsibility in the household. Young daughters are financially
supporting their parents and fellow siblings, while mothers (married or
single) are seeking informal work to provide for their children.
Economic theorizing frequently follows in the steps of political
reality. Accordingly a large number of economists engaged in the task of formulating an intellectual rationale for globalization. The national
scenario at present is not as much encouraging as it was a few years
ago. India has to continue to tread the globalization path cautiously.
The New Economic Policy reforms have had positive as well as negative
impact on Women in general and rural women in particular. Due
to illiteracy and unawareness, rural women have been subjected to
exploitations.
The changing trends as a result of structural adjustment policies
have affected them in both ways. However, in view of the new
globalization and New Economic Policies, a rapid growth rate is
expected in export-oriented industries and there will be an opportunity
to generate large scale employment for both men and women, as a
result of marketisation, privatization and larger foreign investment.
Inspite of, this in general, the impact of globalization on women
and work varies from sector to sector. In most cases globalization
expands opportunities for women in work place, but it does not
remove barriers to advancement, ameliorate the predominance of
low paying menial jobs held by women. Further, long working hours,
relatively lower wages, the mass of influx of women into paid work,
and insecure working conditions in the globalized economies have led
to family breakdown. This reminds the early periods of the industrial
revolution and is one of the most important social effects of the new
type of economy.
In summary, globalization plays a definite role in increasing
opportunities for women in the work place. It does not however solve
the problems of the movement of women beyond low paying and
menial jobs. In addition, it may exaggerate the effect of recession which
has traditionally hurt women more than men. For a better world, all
governments at central and state level, international institutions and
non-governmental organizations, should cooperate with each other for
actions in order to improve the lot of the women.
SECOND ANSWER
Over the ages, women in India have faced the problems such as patriarchy and social pressure; caste based discrimination and social restrictions; inadequate access to productive resources; poverty; insufficient facilities for advancement; powerlessness and exclusion etc.
However, the new circumstances created by globalization are diverse, encompass all women in the country and cover almost all aspects of their life. Some of these are as follows:
Positive Impacts
Changing role in work
Globalization has undermined the traditional role of women in homemaking, farming, livestock, animal husbandry, handicrafts, handlooms etc and resulted in a relatively better environment for women. Women have more jobs, become more active in avenues generally reserved for men, have played a more prominent role in society and not just restricted to the household. It has affected both the quantity and the quality of work available to the majority of women in India.
Changing role in Family, Marriage, Caste
Globalisation has posed a major challenge to the institution of patriarchy in India. As women take up jobs and achieve social mobility, they have also begun to stand up for their rights. As nuclear families have become more common, it has become easier for women to assertively claim their rights and ask for equality in an environment not stuck in ancient mores. Marrying within the same caste has become less important, and women have in many cases reserved the right to marry whoever they choose irrespective of caste. As countries come closer, and boundaries disappear in the globalised world, women in India are inspired by women the world over to fight for their rights. Of course, there are some notable exceptions to the above generalisations. But, to a large extent, these changes have received a great push from the new era of globalisation.
Other Positive Impacts
- Prospects of higher and quality education have become feasible for those women who can afford them, economically and socially.
- Employment in technological and other advanced sectors, which have global bearing, has opened up for suitably qualified women.
- With changing attitude towards women, especially in the urban areas, women enjoy more egalitarian set of gender relationship.
- Augmentation of women’s movements through exposures at the international level will help bring about major changes in the economic, social and political lives of women.
- Reduction in gender inequalities will have positive effect on women’s empowerment in the socio-economic context.
- Attitudinal changes towards women’s role in the family due to good education, benefits of family planning and health care, child care, good job opportunities etc. will surely help in the development of more confident and healthy women.
- Positive approach to economic and cultural migration will facilitate women to be exposed to better prospects at the international level.
Negative Impacts
Globalization has increased the number of low paid, part time and exploitative jobs for women. Increased prices due to open economy demand more cope up with changes from women. With increasing nuclear families, the older women’s life has become pitiable, sometimes spending their later days in old age homes and isolation. The feminization of population has further aggravated this problem. Similarly, male migration from rural areas to urban centres has put the women under triple burden of home making, farming and job in rural sector. At the same time, migration of women for economic reasons has led to increased exploitation including sexual exploitation and trafficking.