Q. Discuss different approaches and theoretical interpretations in agriculture by anthropologists
Most theoretical interpretations of culture in anthropology talk about agriculture as a practice lie within the broader cultural framework. Agricultural practice is inherited through generations. Innovations take place in agriculture leaving space for further growth and development. From simple practice to more complex practice is adopted in agriculture by different societies. Moreover, agriculture is performed
under different cultural and geographical complexities. Like culture, environment too acts significantly for the performance of agriculture. Thus agriculture is also studied under the branch of ecological anthropology or cultural ecology. Deriving the idea of Reidhead (1979), Hutterer (Hutterer, 1983) also pointed out that the farmers manipulate environment for growing the crops they are interested for by following methods of artificial seed dispersal (sowing) and other means of propagation (e.g., planting, cutting, etc.). Though it is universal that agriculture and environment influence each other, there is environmental limitation for agriculture growth which is discussed by anthropologists like B J Meggers. The later studies of Conklin (1963) about shifting cultivation, LP Vidyarthi’s (1963) study on “The Maler: A Nature-Man-Spirit Complex of a Hill tribe in Bihar”; Clifford Geertz’s (1963) study on Agricultural Involution in Indonesia and R.M Netting’s (1972) study of agrarian ecology amongst others have focussed more intensively not only the relation between agriculture, environment, technology and society but deeply into other associate factors such as culture and economy.
Under agricultural study, technology, environment, and economy associated with green revolution were largely studied in India. Many studies in India by P.C. Joshi, Daniel Thorner, later Utsa Pattnaik, Andre Beteille and other social scientists have focused on the transition of agriculture from peasant mode of production to capitalistic mode of production and highlighted the implications for social and cultural framework and environment. Agrarian structure is predominantly focussed in the context of both peasant and capitalistic form of agriculture. The study of peasant culture and society is considered to have paramount effect in anthropological work. Karl Marx, Lenin, A V Chayanov, Eric Wolf, and Robert Redfield amongst others have contributed significantly to the peasant studies.
Moreover, there are large number of ethnographic studies by anthropologists in India and around the globe, which some way or the other, focuses on the dynamics of agriculture and agricultural production. The study of social organisation in agrarian society, mode of production in agriculture around peasant and other farming societies by early and contemporary anthropologists add more value to holistic
approach of anthropology.
There are conceptual differences between so called “agrarian” and “agriculture” with former focuses on the way of life, the socio-economic organisation, and mode of production along with social, cultural and economic value attached with the agricultural practices. However, “agriculture” is a broader concept and focuses on many other dimensions, where technology, environment and the science or rationale behind selection of crops, technology under different socio-cultural and environmental conditions, etc. become primary focus. Agriculture as a science remains a separate discipline for over centuries where technology is a key and inalienable part.
In twentieth century a separate branch of study in anthropology was emerged called the “Agricultural Anthropology”. Cultural ecologists or anthropologists have tried to see the relation between culture and ecology in agriculture and have focussed that agriculture works under different ecological conditions amongst different societies. Society’s role in agriculture is inevitable in the context of certain ecological conditions, where culture plays significant role. Nettings pointed out that “Anthropologists have seldom taken the deterministic position of some earlier geographers that the natural environment could directly cause a particular type of culture. They have noted the limitations that climate, precipitation, topography
soils, and other features could impose on the diffusion and adoption of agricultural complexes”. (Netting, 1974, p.23) in his study has cited the examples from AL Kroeber (1939) and B.J. Meggers (1954) findings how agricultural diffusion is both progressed and constrained by ecological condition. The contemporary focus in agricultural studies by anthropologists addresses the issues of indigenous knowledge and practices by local communities and derives the scientific values for sustainable growth.