The study of man in relation to his working environment is termed as ergonomics. Physical anthropologists provide the anthropometric measurements to create a smooth interface with the product and the varied dimensions of the human body. Corner and Gordon, 1996 have rightly said that products from toothbrushes to luxury sedans are touching ergonomic design. The limb proportions and the size of the body vary in different populations .For this, age, gender, nature of work and place of operation should be taken into account for designing the item. Let us illustrate some examples here. Different kinds of furniture are used in different places.
It is not very easy to design any product or equipment especially when magnitude to the extent of diverse human variation is involved. This warrants the participation of the users, anthropologists and the manufacturers in unison with anthropologists playing very crucial role. This all the more gains importance, particularly when the efficiency of equipment is dependent on human variability. Designs that do not take into account human variations result in poor job performance and waste of time. Earlier equipment was designed without taking into account the physical characteristic of the users. Anthropometry concerned with the measurement of human body plays an enviable role in designing equipment as they provide information on the range and variation in body shapes. This holds significance because it affects the utility of equipment, clothing or work space, significantly in designing automobile seating or aeroplane cockpit where reach or field vision is a critical factor.
One of the most momentous applications of anthropometry is designing of defense equipment which dates back to World War II with the contribution of physical anthropologists as the experts of human anatomy. There has been no looking back after that as anthropometric research has played pertinent role in engineering designing of many technologies right from Jet-fighter ejection seats to analysing human posture in zero gravity on Skylab experiences. Anthropometric data with due credit to its accuracy and reliability has been intelligently applied by anthropologists for Air Force by improving the flying efficiency of the pilots thus saving much money on procurement of large number of pilots. Anthropometric techniques have witnessed its wide usage in defence for better results. For example, a gun turret is designed using scientific principle that any extrusion from an aircraft adds air resistance in such a manner that the gunner has all the free movement of his body needed. This not only reduces their discomfort of long occupancy in a cramped enclosure but also increased efficiency of crewmen, and ensured effective means of escape from an aircraft in emergency. A landmark contribution is reflected in improvising the cock-pit size in different types of air craft and designing of various seat configurations for both fighters and bombers which assisted in reducing cockpit fatigue and discomfort by proper body support.
Another noteworthy application is in flight clothing. Anthropologists have contributed in providing sculptor-carved wooden head forms in four statistically derived sizes: extra-large, large, medium and small to the helmet manufacturers as standards to provide correct size-control. Great deal of physical anthropologist’s concern also lies in designing of oxygen masks using set of seven statistical sizes and shapes of sculptured face forms for correct fit. These are not restricted to males but body sizes of females are also taken to procure flight clothing and other garments for service women. The ejection seat and car passenger safety modifications have helped crew accommodation in the space capsules as well ascockpits and seats of advance fighter aircrafts and automobiles thereby reducing the severity of damage during accidents. Talking of jet engines at high altitudes where the jet flies human body, has the tendency to swell up due to reduced atmospheric pressure. Now in such a scenario, clothing for high altitudes has to be designed in a manner that would prevent muscles from expanding. Using the anthropological technique, it was construed that stature and weight generally yield the highest correlations with other body dimensions and were projected to be diagnostic dimensions for complex fitting garments.
In fact after 1942, anthropometric applications were exploited by other fields of human activities to improve work efficiency by reducing discomfort of people. The design requirements include work space design, clothing and personal equipment design. Workplace design includes designing of any space for human occupancy during work, recreation, rest, education, travel, treatment, etc. The intention behind such designing aims to ensure that there is enough operational work space and proper location of controls, displays and devices for the convenience and efficiency of the operator. Designing of automobile interiors, aircraft cockpit, seating apparatus, doors, tunnels, furniture and kitchen are some of the examples where workplace designing is needed for better results. The measurements required in designing workplace include reach limits, body clearance, eye location, etc. The body measurements that are considered for designing clothing and personal equipment are the circumferences, body contours, limb movements etc. Clothing and personal equipment design includes designing of garments, sportswear, press suits, helmets and gloves, knobs, handles, switches, etc., basically to ensure proper fitting and comfortable movement.
Desks and chairs are used in schools and colleges, kitchen furniture, office tables, file shelves, drawing room furniture bedroom furniture, bathroom fittings, etc. should be designed according to the convenience of the users as per their body size. If seats in road vehicles, airplanes, train etc are not properly designed then the passengers will not feel comfortable. Workers in industries will work more efficiently if they can use the surrounding and the equipment comfortably.
Case study: Seats on trains
Using anthropometric data of people, applied physical anthropologist Hooton conducted research in the seating alignment in trains to make more comfortable seats. He found out that certain bad sitting arrangements result in bad posture, skeletal, muscular and other disabilities whereas good sitting arrangements enhanced improved circulation, respiration and corrected posture. Through the analysis of variations in the anthropometric body measurements, train seats were redesigned. Based on this observation, seats for educational institutes, offices and vehicles were designed.
Case study: Armed forces
Anthropometric surveys on military personnel are conducted to get their body measurements which are used to meet various demands. Since 1951, the National Military Academy in Mexico has been doing effective work in this domain. Biometric investigations are widely used in the selection of cadets. The Air Forces also use the anthropometric data in solving spatial problems in aircraft and in redesigning flight clothing. Anthropometry is also used to design the cockpit as per body size, seats for the passenger’s aircraft, designing of tank and gunsight, pressure suits and helmets, anti-gravitational suits, gasmasks, pistols and guns, etc. The quartermaster Corps emphasizes on finding out the relationship between body and clothing measurements so that the clothes may fit the military personnel with minimum or no alteration.