Introduction:
Ancient literary texts, archaeological and epigraphic evidence and historical records provide fragments of information on the contribution of tribal cultures to the cultures of India. According to these sources, the cultural history of India reveals that the tribals were the original inhabitants of the land of Bharathavarsha. They passed through the different stages of development and some of them were the makers of the Indus Valley civilization. They occupied the most fertile core of the country.
When the Aryans invaded India, Indus civilization was flourishing. In the struggle of indigenous tribes and Aryans, at a later stage, a policy of mutual give and take of cultural traits took place. The gradual amalgamation and synthesis of Vedic and non- Aryan cultural elements proceeded uninterruptedly.
Ethnic identifies:
As the Aryans came into contact with the Dravidians and the indigenous tribal populations a situation arose whereby the ethnic identities were in a state of flux. What happened was that when the Aryan culture developed for the first time in the Indus region it gradually diffused to the neighbouring parts of Indus. As the Aryans gradually progressed eastward from the Punjab, they first sought to destroy everything that was non-Aryan. Gradually, there arose a tendency towards co-existence and the amalgamation of cultures. There was intermingling of pre-Vedic and Vedic culture and a composite culture came into being. The entire culture contact situation involved interaction of three different kinds of peoples the Aryans tribes, namely Bharathas, Purus, Panchala, Turvasu, Yadu, Druhyu and Anus, the Dravidian tribes and the indigenous tribes like the Bhil, Gond, Sahara, Kolia, Kirata, Chandala, Nishada, Bana and Munda. As these tribals came into contact with each other there came into being a fusion of culture and ethnic identities. At the same time those who did not like this fusion and wanted to continue their own cultures, moved into the hills and forests and remained aloof from the other populations. All others remained the partners of a contact situation and process.
Contribution to ethnic complexifies.
The total culture contact created several processes, which are described as follows
- Firstly, there was assimilation of priesthood. Viswamithra, Vasishta, Agasthya, Kanva,Valmiki , Vedavyasa and Angriasa were black people. Garbled versions of their birth were innovated to gloss over their non- Aryan origins so that they could be adopted into the Aryan fold.
- Secondly, there was assimilation of conquered chiefs Babutha, Taruksha and Dasa chiefs into Aryan fold.
- Thirdly, there was assimilation of pre-Aryan, non -Aryan commoners. The Aryans divided society into Brahmin, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudra. The tribal classes hardened into Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. Pre-Aryan and non- Aryan tribes were absorbed into Sudra class.
- Fourthly, there was extermination of some tribals Indra slayed Dasyus and Samjus, defeated Asuras and shattered the forts of Dasas. Saraswatlii killed Parvathaleas on die banks of Purushni. Alexander wiped out the tribals namely Ashvayana, Kathers, Maleras, Kshudras, Sivis, Arattas, and Ambsthas.
- Fifthly, sation Aryani of tribals and tribalisation of Aryans also took place, Dravidians and Pulindas acquired the services of Brahmin of priests The Sabaras accepted the authority of the Kshatriyas. The Sudras and Abhiras procured the services of Brahmin specialists. The Aryans married the tribals Bhima married Hidimbi Aijuna married chitrangda a Naga princess. Ekalavya the Bhil boy, imitated the professional skesh of the Brahmin teacher Dronacharya. Further, the Mundas and Nagas, fought against the Pandavas.
- Sixthly, there was total assimilation of the most powerful tribe Naga into Aryanfold Toll the sixth century B.C. the Naga tribe had its separate identity. Buddha converted them into Buddhism. They were so absorbed into the society that even their traces cannot be found today. Naga was a large tribe living throughout India. They were serpent worshippers and elebrated Naga Pancbami festival, their sculpture included Naga motifs, their place names included Taskshasla, Anant Nag, Nagapur, and Chota Nagapur and their personal names like Nagada, Nagadatta, Nagadeva, Nagdevi, Nagendra, Nagalakshmi and soon.
- Seventhly, grading down of some tribes did take place.Several tribes lost their original positions and started living by hunting. Medas, Andh, Madga and Chenchu were great hunters. The Pukkasa trapped wild animals. Ayogavas worked in wood. Dnigvana and Karamas worked in leather. Pandusopake worked in cane. Margavas were boatmen Veras played on drums. Sairendhris acted as servants and skilled dressers. Chandalas were absorbed into Hindu society and assigned the task of removing dead bodies of animals and human beings as also whipping and chopping off the limbs of criminals. Thus the process of downgrading tribal’s continued.
- Eighthly, upgrading of some tribes took place. The tribes were not leading an isolated and alienated existence is borne out by the fact that many of them participated in the Puranic and epic traditions myths and folklores.The impact of epic heroes like Rama, Sita. Lakshmana, Bhima etc on some of the tribes in central India id evident from their treasures of myths and lives Gonds called selves them the children of Ravana. The Mundas called them selves Manoak or the people of Manu. Sanskrit literature is replete with their descriptions. Panchatantra of Kathasarithsagar present the Aryan, Dravidians and tribals in a romantic and friendly perspective Vishnu Purana describes the tribals as “dwarfish with flat nose. ’ In Kadambari and charitha, Harsha, Sana described a Sayara chief
- Finally, there was ceaseless process of giving shape to Hinduization. The period between (400-1000) A.D.savv a greater opening of tribal areas and Hinduization of tribal chiefs. The Brahman present prepared suitable Puranic genealogies for them and the ruling Brahman class spearheaded the process ofSanskritization or Brahmanization of tribals.
Contributions to Language:
The contribution of tribes to Vedic language was also great. Numerous words from tribal and non-Aryan languages such as Dravidian, Mundari, Austro-Asiatic and other languages entered the Aryan language of Sanskrit. About 400 words from Tamil and several words such as Kadali (plantation), Bala (hair), Kambali (wool), Salinala (hair), Langala (plough), Langnla (tail), Ungn (penis), liana (arrow), Karapasa (cotton stuff), Pata (cotton stuff), Mayukha (peacock), Marooka (peacock) and so on from Auslro-Asiatic languages became part of Sanskrit (Sitapati: 1950). From the word “Bonga” (holy or sacred place), came the word “Bengal” (Bhowmick 1991). That means several words from tribal languages entered and enriched Sanskrit, The Santhals have a traditional song by name “KaramVinee”, which narrates that the Santhais lived in Sapta Sindhu region. The symbols used by the priests among the Savaras resemble the script of the people of Indus Valley , Savara language contains Hebrew and Persian words which reveal the wars of the Savaras with the Aryans (Verma 1993). The designs and drawings drawn by the Santhals living in North Karampura Valley resemble the script of the Indus Valley people (Imam 1993).
Contributions to social life:
Contributions of tribals to Vedic social life were also immense. According to AL. Basham (1985), a historian* Indo-European people created Aryan Gotra system that it was unique to Brahmins* but in course of time it spread to Kshatriyas and Vaisyas. But recent anthropological studies of the Gotra systems of Gonds reveals that the Gotra system originally belongs to the tribals and later the Brahmins copied down that system. The tribe of the Gonds is an ancient one. There are no differences between the structure and function of Gond Gotra system and the Brahminic Gotra system (Mohan Rao 1999: 10-11, 18-20).
The influence of tribal kinship system on the Vedic social structure was striking. In the tribal societies, the bride-givers are considered superior to the bride-receivers. The Aryans copied down this idea. This idea still persists. The custom of marrying the cross-cousin was very much prevalent among the tribes. Aryans borrowed this custom to some extent. In the epic age, such marriages were popular among the Aryans and Dravidians also. The marriage of Sasirekha in Mahabharata was an example. However, as centuries passed the practice of cross-cousin marriages among the Aryans disappeared . Even then marriages by exchange continued and they are popular even today. In some castes in Gujarat and Maharashtra, crosscousin marriages especially those with mother’s brother’s daughter are popular even today. As the Aryans acquired tribal Gotra system, cross-cousin marriages, and marriages by exchange, they came to have a kinship system similar to that of the tribals. Accordingly they shaped even their kinship usages.
Contributions to techno-economic life:
The influence of the tribal techno-economic life on the Vedic Aryans was also substantial. Archaeological evidence clearly demonstrates tire gradual use of iron by the Aryans. Aryans came to know the use of iron only after entering India. In the initial days they copied down iron technology from the local tribals. It is for this reason the early archaeological sites yielded a few iron implements while the later sites provided numerous iron implements. This also speaks of gradual increase in iron technology of the Aryans. In the initial days of their migration they did not know the utility of iron. They used to cultivate barley and wheat but they learnt the art of raising the rice crop from the local tribals who are experts in that. Like the tribals, the Aryans were initially shifting cultivators but later became settled rice cultivators. In this context, they borrowed many -agricultural implements like hoe, seed driller and leveller and used them in the very manner that the tribals used them. Further, the Aryans borrowed the magico-religious practices of the non-Aryans for dealing with the pests and diseases of the crops raised by them. Even Atharavana Veda incorporated these into its hymns. The Aryan priests invoked the Vedic gods but the reasons for which they were invoked were trivial and individualistic. For example, the Aswins were entrusted with the
protection of agriculture and the killing of rats. Many godlings and spirits were invoked either to cure crop pests and diseases, to protect cattle and fields and to ward off the ill-effects of evil forces on crops.
On account of culture contact situation between the tribals and the Aryans, the Vedic culture borrowed different types of techno-economic knowledge from the local tribals. Through barter, Aryans obtained different varieties of wild products from the tribals. The Banjaras used to secure rock salt from Rajasthan and carry it on the back of pack animals to different places in India and sell it to the needy. To carry the commodity to different places, they used to have special public-paths for their caravans. When Aryans visited the forests for hunting purposes, they used to seek the guidance from the forest inhabitants namely Bhil, ‘Sahara and Nishada. A tribe by name Asuras were experts in iron technology. The members of this tribe extract iron from iron ore and make different implements. The Aryans copied the technology from the Asuras. Banjaras used to rear cattle and dispose them to the Aryan and non-Aryan agriculturalists. Likewise some tribals were known for their boat-building and preparing household equipments. Aryans bartered the products of these tribes for their own farm products.
Contributions to political life:
As contact between Aryans and non-Aryans increased, both the parties felt a need for a political system common to them. The political systems of both merged into each other. The system of chiefdom characteristic of tribes has become part of monarchic and republic systems of Aryans. The monarchic and republic system had grown slowly and by later Vedic time the political idea that the king or monarch is God came into prominence. At the same time nobles gained political ranks. Taking this advantage many tribal chiefs became nobles. Relations between the forest tribals and Aryan rulers became very intimate and strong. The tribal chiefs and those chiefs who became nobles used to send their armies to support the armies of Aryan kings. In course of time certain tribal areas became parts of Aryan kingdoms. The Sabhas and Samithis that were popular among the Aryans were of tribal origins. Likewise, the village assemblies were originally seen among the tribals, but the Aryans adopted them as important means for administering the villages. Federations of Aryan republics were of common occurrence during the epic times. Tribal chiefdoms and kingdoms were absorbed into Aryan monarchies, as tribals accepted honourable positions in the Aryan fold. From the epic times the spying system has acquired special significance. The rulers used to appoint qualified tribals for the purpose of spying in own kingdoms, in own places and harems, and in enemy kingdoms. Those spies used to collect information on secret plans, schemes, gloatings and palace happenings. The tribals earned great reputation in espionage and counter-espionage activities. Tribals learnt the art of warfare from the Aryans and vice versa. During times of war, kings procured the services of the forest tribals especially in matters of transporting the goods, animals, the arms and ammunition, rations and other material objects across mountainous tracts, deserts, rivers and marshlands. There were, thus, close relations between the tribals and the Aryans.
Religious life:
In India first there was tribal religion. It was followed by the religion of the Indus Valley people. Later, Vedic religions emerged . In the Vedic age, the religion of the Aryans and the religions of the non-Aryans formed into a synthesis to form Hindu religion. On account of this synthesis, The Aryans accepted the worship of Mahadeva or Shiva linga, Sarpa (cobra), Vriksha (tree), Chailyn and Yaksha from the non-Aryans. The Aryans incorporated into their religion, the non-Aryan little traditional deities and (he ritual practices concerned. Jagannatha, Balarama and Subhdra of Puri were originally little traditional deities of the tribe of Savara, otherwise known as Sahara. The heirs of Savara chief Basu still enjoy certain rights with regard the conduct of ritual and ceremonial activities at the temple of Puri. The only temple in India where the entry is allowed to all Varnas, castes, races and religions without any discrimination is the temple of Puri. Lord Venkateswara in Tirupati, Panduranga Vittal in Maharashtra, Ayyapa Swami in Kerala are originally little traditional deities. In the Nallamalla forest range of Andhra Pradesh there are numerous Shiva temples of which the most famous one is that of Srisaila Mallikarjuna. The Chenchus worship Srisaila Mallikarjuna. In fact, the popular name of Srisaila Mallikaijuna is Chenchu Mallanna. The Chenchus who transport the pilgrims to the temple of Srisaila charge tax (sunkam) known as “Mettu” at a fixed rate approved by the government authorities. The art traditions of Santhals and those of the people of Indus civilization resemble each other. The “khovar ” art tradition of fertility, the “Shoray” art tradition glorifying the harvest season and the drawings made at the “Baha” festival time among the Santhals resemble the Indus script. Some of these diffused into Aryan religion.
The synthesis of Aryans and non-Aryan religious beliefs and practices was so complete that it has changed even the forms and functions of Aryan deities. Indra was asked to kill the house robber, die worm in the body and the wolf-devil. The Aswins were entrusted with the protection of agriculture and the killing of rats. Surya was invoked to remove demons.
Savitri was summoned to fix a place where a new home could be built. Pushan was invoked to bring harmony and safe delivery of babies. Folk traditions percolated into Vedic traditions and found a place in standard Vedic texts like Atharavana Veda.
There are instances where non-Aryans wrote numerous standard texts used by Aryans, and non-Aryans alike. Valmiki (an Aryanised tribal) compiled Mahabhartha in Sanskrit. The woman who gave fruits to Rama and worshipped him belonged to the tribe Savara. The friend of Rama who plied a boat across Ganga when Rama along with Sita and Lakshmana was on his way to forest was Guha, a tribal. Matanga, Dharmavyadha, Arundhati and Pasupatha, and Boya were all tribals who propagated the doctrines of Hindu Dharma. The magical formulae (mantrams) of the Savara have found a place among the hymns of
Atharavana Veda. The beliefs and practices of Vedic Aryans and those of the contemporary Savaras especially with respect to naturism, animism and animatism show patterns of similarities . The creator of Gayatbri mantra is Viswamitra, an Aryanised non-Aryan).
As Aryan Vedic religion and non-Aryan local religion got mixed up, the non-Aryans accepted the Brahmin purohits. Non-Aryan deities joined the Aryan deities and received worship on par with those offered to Aryan deities. Tribes accepted numerous Aryan religious customs and traditions. As a result the tribals also performed festivals like Holi, Dasarah, Deepavali, Ramnavami, and others visited Hindu temples and undertook pilgrimages.
However, Aryan Rralunins kept away the people of Magadha kingdom from Hinduism . As the people of Magadha did not accept Aryan religious life, the Brahmins among the Aryans branded them “Kikatas1*, “ Vratyas” and “Aparishuddbast Consequently, the latter embraced Buddhism. In general, it is a synthesis of Aryan and non-Aryan religious traditions resulted in the formation of Hinduism as part and parcel of Indian culture.
Contributions of artistic life:
The mythologies, folktales, medicine, music and related aspects of tribals diffused into Aryan culture. The anthropomorphic features of idols worshipped by the Santhals of Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa and those of the idols worshipped by the pre-Aryan Indus Valley people were similar.
In Vedic times, the* music of the Aryans and of non-Arvans combined and formed a unique synthesis. Among the several musical nodes namely “Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, ni and sa”, ‘which the Aryans had, they borrowed the node “na” from the Nishadas of Vindhya region. Likewise, Aryans derived the stringed instrument “Veena” from the Savara instrument of “Memerajan”. “Meme” means breasts, “rajan” means stringed instrument. Neither the music of the Aryans nor the music of the tribals remained pure; both merged into a single reality. The pastoral music of Aryans and the music of the tribals united into a new variety. Tribal medicine also entered the Ayurveda of Aryans. Aryans incorporated the herbs, decoctions, calcined powders, extractions, mixtures and pastes used by the tribals into their medical systems. Savaras were experts in magical practices. They rendered their services to the Aryans. Their magical formulae were so useful to the Aryans that they incorporated some of them into Atharavana Veda, Tribals like those of Parvatakas, Sabaras (Savaras), Santhals, Gonds and so on were experts in herbal medicine. They used to supply Sarpagandhi, Aswagandhi, Pippali, animal fats to Aryans and others, intercommunication between Aryan and indigenous medical systems. All this established Vedic culture had become a composite of Aryan and non-Aryan cultures. The mythologies and folk tales got mixed up so much that it is well neigh impossible to separate the non-Aryan elements from the Aryan elements and vice-versa. Especially, the stories regarding the origins, marriages, styles of worship and powers of the later Vedic gods and goddesses contain the elements of those innovated by the Aryans and non-Aryans which cannot be separated as such today.
Conclusion:
The contributions of tribals to the Vedic culture are very significant. The Vedic culture is actually a synthesis of Aryan, Dravidian and tribal cultures. There were ethnic fissions, fragmentations, exterminations, degradations and upgradations and assimilations in the culture contact processes. At the same time there was inter-culture communications to form a mosaic of culture. This culture came to be recognised as Vedic culture.