The economic organization of hunting and gathering tribes is characterized by simple production, complex system of distribution and mostly immediate consumption.
Geographical distribution:
- There are about 2,50,000 people existing as hunters and gatherers in a world population of 8 billions.
- These are exposed to more technologically advanced societies.
These Tribes are distributed in :-
| 1) America: | a) Alaska : Eskimo b) Surinam : Akurio |
| 2) Africa: | a) Congo- Pygmy b) Tanzania- Ariangulae, Boni , Bunye c) Angola – Koroka, Bantu d) Kalahari Desert- Bushmen e) Kenya- Hadza |
| 3) Asia: | a) Thailand- Mrabi b) Malaya- Savani c) Philippines- Tasaday d) Sumatra – Kubu e) Borneo- Pavan |
| 4) Australia : | a) Central Desert – – Pitjandjara, Kariera, Arunta b) Northern Part—Tiwi |
| 5) India: | a) Andaman and Nicobar – Onge, sentinelese , Jarwa b) Jharkhand- Birhor c) Kerala- Kadar d) Andhra Pradesh & Telangana – chenchu. |
Characteristics:
1) Nomadism/Semi-nomadism – Hunter gatherers are highly mobile and are generally nomadic. Hunter gatherers must adapt to changes in seasons. They move where the animals go and where animal and plant life occur. They do not raise animals for subsistence or cultivate plants but merely use what is already available. They take what they need from the environment.
2) Lowest population density – Hunter-gatherers are food collectors. They hunt wild fish and forage for wild plants. They do not rely on domesticated plants or animals for subsistence. They have the lowest- population density.
3) Flexibility of group life – Hunter-gatherers are very loosely structured and unstable. Their membership is continually changing because persons frequently drop out of one group and join another. For example, during the dry season , when water is scarce, the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert in South Africa congregate around the few remaining waterholes; and the Eskimos of North America come together in large groups to hunt Caribou during the migrating season. This flexibility is necessary in order to adapt to the changing conditions of the habitat.
4)Simple Economic Resources:
a)Technology – Digging sticks, snares, traps, bows and arrows, stone tools, baskets, nets and other tools.
b) Division of labour: This is based on age , sex and to some extent specialization cooperative work groups may or may not exist , Craft specialization exists to some extent.
c) Land ownership – Hunters and gatherers determine who can hunt and gather and where each tribe has its own territory and where it can hunt and gather. Encroachments are not tolerated. However, in times of scarcity one can hunt in other’s territory by taking prior permission from the owners of that territory
d) Capital – Hunters and gatherers have a means of creating and allocating the tools and artifacts used in the production of goods and passed on to succeeding generations. They have a few and simple tools. They share tools in exchange for the products of their use.
e) Production – The hunters and gatherers follow a system of production in terms of yearly cycle. They divide the areas into hunting zones and collecting zones. They adopt several precautions in collecting the foods and hunting the animals, There is plenty of food and rarely characterized by food shortages.
f) Distribution – The distribution system is very complex. Distribution takes place in terms of generalized reciprocity , balanced reciprocity and silent or dumb barter . Generalized reciprocity exists between close relatives. It occurs in the form of sharing hospitality , gift , health and generosity , in this context , neither the volume of what is given , nor the time of repayment is specified.
For eg ;-
Among the Bushmen of Kalahari Desert , the sharing of game food is as follows:
- 1st part to hunters and owners of arrows
- 2nd part given to Kinsmen.
- 3rd part given to visitors.
4th part given to non-participants.
Balanced reciprocity occurs between equals who are not relatives.
For eg., the trade taking place between Tswant peasants and Bushmen highlights balanced reciprocity.
- 1 Gemsbock(deer)skin – 1 pile of tobacco
- 5 strings of beads made of ostrich shells – 1 spear.
- 3 small skins of Gemsboc – 1 good sized knife
In silent trade or dumb barter there is no verbal communication between the parties concerned.
Eg:-
(i) Semang in Malaysian forest
They supply jungle produce like honey, berries, nuts and seeds to the peasants, in return they receive salt, beads, metal tools etc., left by the peasants It is called silent trade as both the parties are absent to the transaction.
(ii) Veddas of srilanka.
They placed honey, birds, fruits, gum and nuts , skins of animals and deposited these at the door step of smiths, In return smiths used to place iron tools like knifes or hatchets, axes, arrow points, salt and dried fish.
g) Consumption – Hunters and gatherers are self-sufficient. They consume whatever they produce., Immediate consumption is common. Certain items like dry fish, skins, honey, seeds and nuts are preserved for exchanging the same for the tools they use in their economic activities from the neighboring populations.
h) Leadership pattern: In hunting and gathering bands, egalitarianism occurs in its real form. Everyone is considered good as every other one and everyone is expected to participate in every political meeting. That means all are given scope to participate in the political bodies and everyone is given permission to voice his or her feelings. Therefore, the band system works as a true democratic system.
Formal leadership is absent, there is only situational leadership. The person who is an expert in resolving the disputes, in guiding the hunting parties, in choosing the camp sites etc. comes forward to help the band in his own way. He is the first among the equals ‘the primus inter parces .
I) Polytheistic religion– Hunter gatherers are typical polytheistic people, that is, they have many Gods Not only do so many deities exist, but people maintain a relationship with all of them. Each sphere of nature or activity is governed by its own deity (for instance, they may be a God of rain, of sunshine, of sickness, or rabbits etc.) – There is usually no high God, no supreme deity.
There are no priests, each person, for the most part is his or her own religious functionary. Though a formal priesthood is absent among hunter-gatherers, part-time religious and magical practitioners, called ‘shamans’ are often found.
j) Feuding but not large scale war – Because of the lack of territoriality, hunter gatherers usually do not engage in large scale conflict or war among themselves. But, if an involving power threatens their autonomy or their access to resources then they wage war. However, fending a small scale and more individualistic forms of conflict does exist.