Forest policies Evolution – Anthropology by K.V RAMESH

Introduction:

Invariably, tribals in India are referred to as the people of the forests. They are Vanyajati or Vanavasi –inhabitants of the forest. Forests played an important part in the lives and economy of the tribals. The tribals had lived in the forest or near the forest throughout history. The original place of living and the migration pattern as exemplified in the scriptures and tribal myths support this conjecture. Even now the largest concentration of tribals is in the forest region of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar and Orissa. The contribution of forests to the daily life of the tribals and to their economic of forests to the habits, and their spiritual and to their economic purists, their food laws and their operation from 1898 onwards show how tribals were deprived of their natural rights in forest and forest produce.

Role of forest in tribal life:

The role of forest in tribal life is manifold:

(i) Forest is an important source of livelihood. It gives sustenance. It provides materials to build their houses, provides edible stuffs like roots, tubers, fruits, flowers, and leaves and provides fuel. Forest is a source of game. Hunting is an important mode of supplementing the food requirements of the tribals. In earlier days, hunting took place on a regular basis. But now the scope of hunting has been reduced considerably due to the scarcity of game and peculiarity of forest rules. Even now tribals go hunting in the forest mainly on festival occasions. Hunting is always collectively organised by the members of one or more villages. Forest is a source of cultivation. It provides for shifting cultivation and agriculture.
(ii) Forest is a source of raw materials for the tribal crafts. Forests not only supply woods, etc. but also provide a number of raw materials for crafts like ropemaking, basket-making and woodwork. The tribals sell these crafts in the market for cash or food grain and thus supplement their daily earnings. Basketry is the traditional occupation of some of the tribals. Almost all the tribals know carpentry and rope-making.
(iii) Forest is a source of indigenous medicines. Forests provide the tribals with a number of indigenous medicines which can cure many types of diseases. The tribals have identified a number of roots and tubers and herbs with medicinal values. There are expert persons in the village who have a thorough knowledge about the utility of these plants and roots. The medicines for diseases like cold and fever is effective. Some roots are used for keeping away the snakes. The village nurse and the witch doctor are experts in identifying and collecting these roots.
(iv) Forest is a source of marketing produce. The tribals exploit the minor forest produce to supplement their meagre income. The tribals sell the forest produce to the people in the neighbouring villages against cash a food stuff. Gathering from the forest is a complementary economic activity in the life of the tribals who are otherwise settled agriculturists.
(v) Forest is the source of employment. Forests provide employment for a large number of tribals during the lean months. Especially the tribals get employment in cutting, the wood or felling the trees, transporting the wood from the forest to the plains areas.
(vi) Forest is the source of religious values. Forests and the tribals are inextricably interwoven with each other. The gods and deities of the tribals live in the forest. Tribals worship many trees. On account of this, the tribals are able to protect the forests.

Forest management and tribals:

In the past, the tribals enjoyed considerable freedom in the use of forest resources. They were virtually lords of forests. With the introduction of state management of the forests, particularly since the close of the 19th century, the relationship between the tribals and the forest has undergone considerable
change.

(i) In 1855 Lord Dalhousie laid down a definite and farsighted forest policy. Further progress was delayed for a time by the Mutiny, but in 1862, owing largely to the increasing difficulty of adequate supply of timber for the unprecedented expansion of railway lines then being undertaken, the Government of India was forced to take steps to protect the forest that still survived, and forest organisation was rapidly expanded to all the provinces of India. Exploration, demarcation and settlement, followed by efforts to introduce protection and some form a regular management.
(ii) In 1864, the Imperial Forest Department was established mainly to ensure the sustained availability of timber for railways sleepers. The government felt that for effective functioning of the department, the previously exercised unlimited rights of the forest dwellers should be restricted. A memorandum providing guideline restricting the rights of the forest dwellers was issued in August 1855 and was later modified in 1884.
(iii) The Government Forest Act, 1865 empowered the government to declare any land covered with trees, brushwood or jungle as government forest by notification. Rules made in pursuance of this Act prohibited marketing, girdling, felling, lopping off the branches of trees. It also prohibited collection of fruits, dry leaves, grass, wood-oil, resin, wax, honey, stones, lime or any natural produce of such forests.
(iv) Indian Forest Act, 1878 was more comprehensive than the earlier one and defined several terms precisely and for the time. ‘Trees included palms, bamboo, stumps, brushwood and canes; ‘Timber includes trees fallen or felled; and ‘forest produce’ carried and exhaustive list of items from timber to charcoal, lac, flowers etc.
Also, for the first time, forest was classified as “Reserved’ forests, “Protected’ forests and ‘Village’ forests. The government could declare any class of trees in a protected forest or any tree in any such forest, to be reserved from a date fixed by notification.

Derecognition of Communal Ownership:

Derecognition of communal control of property was one of the instruments government wielded to disorganise the tribal community. In the pre-British period the Indian villages used to pay revenue to the results as a community rather than individually. The British insisted on individual land settlement and payment of revenue at an enhanced rate.

National Forest Policy, 1894:

The first national policy on forests was formulated in 1894. it is introduced state control over forests in public interest which resulted in the curtailment of rights and privileges of the tribals over the forest resources. The aims of the policy emphasised: regulation of rights and the restriction of the privileges of the user in the forest by the neighbouring populations”, along with the preservation of forests on hills slopes and river-beds. It was also made clear that the forests were to be managed on commercial lines as a source of revenue.

For the implementation of the policy, forests were broadly classified into following four categories:

Forests, the preservation of which was essential on climatic or physical grounds;
Forests which afford supply of valuable timber for commercial purposes;
Minor forests:
Pasture land.

The policy gave maximum importance to the revenue aspect of forests and commercialised supply of major forest produce needed in order to comply with the general forest needs of the country. The policy did more “harm than good” to the tribals. It was detrimental “to the economic position of the tribals through ignorance and neglected of their rights and customs”.

National Forest Policy, 1952

The exact impact the 1894 policy was not realised during the preindependence period as the forests were in plenty then. It was only after the independence that the damage caused by the clearing of forests was realised and efforts were made for their economic development. Accordingly, a new forest policy was formulated in 1952 and it objectives were.

Evolution of a system of balanced and complementary land use,
Checking of soil erosion,
Stablemen of tree lands,
Creation of small woods for grazing and collecting wood for agricultural implements and fuel purposes.
Supply of timber for national needs
Realisation of maximum annual revenue.

The new policy classified the forests into four categories viz;

the protected forests which are to be preserved for physical and climatic conditions,
the national forests for meeting the needs of defence, communication, industries, etc.,
the village forests for providing fuel, timber, grazing and agricultural requirements, and
the tree lands for preservation of environment of the country.

The policy explained the Government’s view regarding local needs: “Village communities in the neighbourhood of a forest will naturally make greater use of its products for the satisfaction of their domestic and agricultural needs. Such use, however, should in no event be permitted at the cost of national interests. The accident of a village being situated close to a forest does not prejudice the right of the country as a whole to receive the benefits of a national asset. The scientific conservation of a forest inevitably involved the regulation of rights and the restriction of the privilege of user depending upon the value and importance of the forest, however some such restraints may be to the neighbouring areas. While, therefore, the needs of the local population must be met to a reasonable extent, national interests should not be satisfied because they are not directly discernible, nor show, the rights and interests of future generations be subordinated to the improvidence of the present generation.” (The National Forest Policy, Ministry of Food and agriculture, Government of India)

The policy of 1952 differed significantly from the old policy of 1894 as far as the rights of use of tribals are concerned.:

While the old policy envisaged the release of forest land for cultivation subject to certain conditions, the new policy completely denied this concession.
The old policy left a margin for the supply of the villagers needs from the outlying areas of the reserved forests. The new policy decided that there should be village forests for this purpose.
The old policy did not touch the private forests of the tribals but New policy had controlled the rights to use of this type of forests.
While according to the old policy grazing was free, under the new policy fees were introduced and grazing was to be kept to the minimum.

The Immediate objective of the forestry development is to attain selfsufficiency in at industrial and commercial timber, in fuel woods and other forest products for consumer and other ancillary industries. The objective was proposed to be achieved by increasing the area under man-made forest, by increasing productivity of existing forest through better legging techniques, by improvement of communication so that hitherto unused resources can be exploited. As a result of the new policy, the tribals who considered themselves the masters of the forests became their subjects. They were under the control of the forest Department. The traditional rights of the tribals were reduced to mere concessions.
The emphasis in the new policy, on collection of maximum revenue from forest resources had led to the involvement of the contractors in various forestry operations. The damage caused by them in connivance with the forest personal have not only devasted the forests but have also caused uncontrolled exploitation of the tribals.

The tribals being ignorant of the laws are completely left at the mercy of the contractors who dictate terms to them for purchase of forest produce.

New Forest Policy, 1988

The new forest policy was adopted on December 7, 1988. It can be termed as the first attempt on the part of the government to completely change its attitude towards forests and tribal. The policy accepts the important role of tribal regarding forest protection and management.

Basic Objectives.

The basic objectives that should govern the National Forest Policy include ‘the requirements of fuelwood, fodder, minor forest produce and small timber of the rural and tribal populations, along with the maintenance of environmental stability conserving natural heritage etc. the policy also recognises the need to encourage efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximise substitution of wood.

The essential of forest management clearly mention that ‘Provision of sufficient fodder, fuel and pasture especially in areas adjoining forest, is necessary.’ It further adds that “the programmes of afforestation should be intensified with special emphasis on augmenting fuelwood production to meet the requirement of the rural people”

Ownership Rights over Tress

The policy suggests the village and community lands which are not required for other productive uses, should be taken up for the development of tree crops and fodder resources. Technical assistance and other inputs necessary for initiating such programme is to be Government. More important is the fact that the revenue generated through such programmes will belong to the panchayats where the lands are vested in them. In case of individuals, particularly from the weaker sections such as tribals, landless labour etc., certain ownership rights over trees are to be created subject to appropriate regulations where beneficiaries would be entitled to usufruct and would in turn be responsible for their security and maintenance.

Rights and Concessions:

The document accepts the fact that the life of tribals revolves around forests. Therefore, “The rights and concessions enjoyed by them should be fully protected.” It asserts further that “the holders of customary rights and concessions in forest areas should be motivated to identify themselves with the protection and development of forests”. Also, for the first time has the policy mentioned that to relieve the existing pressure on forests substitution of wood needs to be taken resource to. Use of fuel-efficient chullas and stall-feeding of cattle too have been taken into consideration.

Tribal People and Forests:

Having regard to the symbolic relationship between the tribal people and forests, policy emphasises that “the primary task of all agencies responsible for forest management is that they should associate the tribal people closely in the protection, regeneration and development of forest as well as provide gainful employment to people living in and around the forests.”

Forest-based Industries.

The policy states that “as far as possible, a forest-based industry should raise the raw material needed for meeting its own requirements”. It does not forget to add that, “The fuel, fodder and timber requirements of the local people should not be sacrificed.” It also sees to it that the forest-based industries not only provide employment to local people on priority but also involve them fully in raising trees and raw material. The policy statement contains many more valuable suggestions regarding forestry education, conservation programmes, training centres for farmers etc