In this classic work, Émile Durkheim (1968) sought to describe the most fundamental elements of religious life. He focused his study on the most “primitive” society known to him: the native peoples of central Australia.
Durkheim’s Methodology
Durkheim established two conditions for a religious system to be considered “primitive”:
- It must be found in a society with the simplest possible organization.
- It must be explainable without borrowing elements from any previous religion.
Debating the Origins of Religion
Prior to Durkheim, two major theories attempted to explain why religion exists. Both viewed religion as a product of individual psychology.
| Theory | Key Proponent | Basis of Belief |
| Animism | E.B. Tylor | Belief that spirits (anima) occupy objects; derived from explaining states like sleep and death. |
| Naturism | Max Müller | Religion as an attempt to understand overwhelming natural forces (fire, lightning, the sea). |
The Durkheimian Difference
Unlike the theories above, Durkheim argued that Religion is eminently social. He believed:
- Religious representations are collective representations expressing group realities.
- Rites are actions designed to excite or maintain specific mental states within an assembled group.
Totemism and the Sacred
Durkheim identified the Totem as the core of religious life in central Australia. A totem is a category of things (animals, plants, or celestial bodies) associated with a social group or clan.
- Emblem and Liturgy: The totem is the name and emblem of the clan, incorporated into religious practices.
- Source of Sacredness: The totem is “the very type of sacred thing.” Its sacredness is imparted to everything associated with it.
- Taboos: Specific prohibitions transform ordinary animals or objects into embodiments of sacredness.
Defining Religion: The Sacred vs. The Profane
Durkheim provided a definitive sociological definition:
“A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community, called a Church, all those who adhere to them.” (1968:62)
Key Concept: Social Construction
What makes religion distinctive is the division of the world into two spheres:
- The Sacred: Things set apart and forbidden through social classification.
- The Profane: The ordinary, mundane world.
There is nothing inherently sacred in the world; it becomes sacred only when a society classifies it as such.
Collective Representations and Society Sui Generis
Shared cognitive categories—such as time, space, color, and social distinctions—are what Durkheim called “collective representations.”
- Arbitrary yet Systematic: Just as all Americans agree on the 60-minute hour, these categories are social, not products of individual musings.
- Reality Sui Generis: Durkheim argued that society is a reality sui generis (of its own kind). You cannot derive social facts from individual psychology anymore than you can deduce the “whole” from a “part.”
Summary: Two Spheres of Knowledge
- The Individual: Personal psychology and isolated musings.
- The Social: Collective thought and the basis of all cultural knowledge.