Tribals in India lead a comparatively and peaceful life prior to the coming of the British. Along with the British rule there came in series of social changes.
Some of these changes affected tribal life also. Exposure of the tribals to the modern civilisation also resulted in their exploitation at the hands of the nontribals. Conversion activities of the Christians missionaries encouraged by the British, especially in the tribal areas, further added confusion to the tribals. Tribals reacted very strongly when their religious beliefs were mocked at, when their rights over the forests were removed and when their very way of life was disturbed.
Even now, tribals in India are not happy and are agitated over several things. Ever since the days of the British rule they have been revolting against the establishment, for various reasons. The important tribes involved in revolt in the 19th century were Mizos[1810], Kols[1795 and 1831], Mundas [1889], Daflas[1875], Khasi and Garo [1829], Kacharis [1839], Santhals [1853], Muria Gonds [1886], Nagas[1884 and 1879], Bhuiyas [1868] and Kondhs [1817]. After independence also many tribal revolts took place. The continuing state of discontent among the tribals is revealed through the contemporary tribal movements. Some of the contemporary movements are-the Jharkhand movement, Gond movement, Naga movements, Mizo movement, Bodoland movement, etc.
Some Major Types of Tribal Movements.
It is possible to identify some of the major types of tribals movements.
1. Religious and social reforms movements
2. Movements for statehood within the Indian Union, or for autonomy for tribal areas.
3. Insurgent movements for independence from the Indian Union, and
4. Movements for asserting cultural rights.
It is significant to note that there are lost of variations in tribal movements from region to region.
In the North East, the tribals are in an overwhelming majority in some of the states. Example: Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland. Their tribal economy and social system are relatively stable. The tribal movements in this areas are essentially political in nature Hence, some of the tribal groups Ex. Nagas in Nagaland, Mizos in Mizoram demended autonomy and for that sake carried on continuous agitations some times back.
The situation in Middle India is far more complex. The tribals have been reduced to a minority in many areas in which they were dominant numerically at one time. Further, they have been exposed to the process of rapid social changes. The tribal movements in this region have essentially and agrarian character and are often related to the exploitation of forest resources.
In some regions the tribal movements have a cultural dimension in the sense that they are related to language, tribal art and religion. Tensions have often prevailed in these regions on account of religious conversions and linguistic tussles.
Tribals in South India are either too backward or too few number or widely dispersed over a large area to organise any movements in spite of their exploitation and discontent. “However, Mishra [1982] says that there is evidence of incipient political mobilisation among the tribals in South India. In fact, political consciousness among the tribals of Kerala may be the highest in the country.”
The study of the tribal movements is relatively recent in the field of social anthropology. Tribal movements may be seen as an aspect of social change. The policy of the colonial administration regarding forest and land, later on alienation of the tribal land, the immigration and settlement of an increasing number of nontribals for the emergence of various tribal movements in the North Eastern states of Manipur, Mijoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
According to A.R. Desai, the fundamental problems of the tribal population are economic political such as the security of a job, a decent standard of living, easy accessibility to the resources of civilised life, the acquiring of education, which can enable them to decide what customs, what rituals, and what aesthetic and cultural elements they should retain, or eliminate or absorb from their culture and various other cultures. He is of the opinion that the violent and militant struggles which are being launched by the tribal populations rehabilitation revolts against various inhuman conditions to which they have been subjected and which are being perpetuated even after independence. He points out:” The tribal problems is problem which raises the fundamental issue- the issue of the establishment of a social order founded on equality of opportunities and the elimination of exploitation.
The Causes of Tribal Unrest.
Tribal unrest and discontent are a cumulative effect of a number of factors. The factors or causes that led to he tribal revolt, unrest and discontent may be listed here.
1. Governmental Failure
The failure of the Government to take appropriate measures to rehabilitate the tribal population both before and after independence had disappointed the tribals. Independent India’s Constitution envisages a comprehensive and well-designed scheme of action for the tribal protection and development. The State Governments are vested with the responsibility of implementing the Constitutional provisions. Unfortunately, these Constitutional provisions have remained nonoperational. Land continues to pass out of the tribals to non-tribals. Money lenders continue to exploit them. There has been a heavy influx of outsiders into the tribal areas and they have grabbed most of the opportunities.
2. Irresponsibility and Lack of Accountability of the Agencies of Tribal Development : Indifference irresponsibility, lethargy and lack of sympathy on the part of the administrators and bureaucrats in dealing with the tribal problems and grievances have been obvious. There are a number of agencies to look after and supervise the implementation of the tribal welfare programmes and schemes. Multiplicity of agencies divides the responsibility and to irresponsibility and unaccountability.
3. Unjust Forest Policy
Inconsiderate unsympathetic forest laws and regulations damaged the tribal emotionality. Lands traditionally owned and cultivated by the tribals have been branded as “forest lands” under the new Forest Policy. As a result, the tribals have become strangers and encroachers in their own land.
4. Alienation of Tribal Land to the Non-Tribals
Lack of legislation to passing of the tribal land into the hands of nontribals had added to tribal unrest. Due to some loopholes in the existing system of law the tribal land continues to be alienated to non-tribals for their own exclusive uses. The state governments have also acquired tribal land for industrial, irrigation, power, mining, and other projects. As a result, the tribals have been deprived of their rights over the land.
5. Political Indifference
Lack of interest and dynamism among the political elite to solve the tribal problems made them to become disgusted. National level political parties have not paid due attention to the genuine problems of the tribals. Tribals are remembered only at the tribal development and the tribal welfare only for the name sake. Tribals are remembered only at the time of elections. The political indifference has made the tribals to organise their own political parties at local level. Because of their groupism they have not been able to forge a unity to fight for their own cause.
6. Absence of Efficient Tribal Leadership
Tribals should be able to develop their own leadership to fight against exploitation and to secure justice. But unfortunately, various vested interests have prevented the emergence of powerful tribal leadership. There is virtually a vacuum of tribal leadership. This has very badly affected their development.
7. Forceful Cultural Impositions
Tribals are trying to come in touch with civilised people. Leaders of various religious communities such as the Hindu, Christian and the Muslim, are trying to approach them and influence their way of life. Tribals who want to retain their original culture are bewildered at this. The Hinduisation, Christianisation and also Islamisation of the tribals have caused lot of anxiety and a sense of insecurity for them.
8. Exploitation of tribals
Tribals face exploited in many ways. The minor forest produce collected by tribals are brought at very low prices by the main land business men. Money lenders charge usurious interest rates and push tribals into a vicious cycle of poverty and indebtedness. The tribal women are being sexually assaulted and young girls are being exploited.
9. Excise Policy
Excise policy has clashed with the interests of tribal communities. Consumption of liquor plays a significant part in a tribal’s life. Due to ecological reasons the tribals depend to a considerable extent on the forests. Indigenous beverage prepared by fermentation of rice and millets is a part of their daily diet as these beverages have also some food value. Births, marriages, deaths, panchayat meetings, the presence of guests, festivals and festivities are considered suitable occasions for drunkenness. It has been a symbol of hospitality and is offered to their deities in all religious rites. Introduction of distilled liquor in tribal areas by the British and its continuance has led to the economic exploitation of the tribals. With the coming of contractors in tribal areas, the exploitation of tribals increased as they were lured to consume more and more liquor. With a view to checking such exploitation, Government of India had been time and again impressing upon the States to keep in view the recommendations (made by the Central Advisory Board on Prohibition) regarding the exemption from excise policy to be given to tribal areas. It is clear from the above, that various social, political, economic and legal factors have contributed to the problem of tribal unrest.