How does culture differ from civilization? Describe the attributes of Culture?
Definition of Culture
Culture is the set of knowledge, experiences and behaviours which is commonly shared by a group of people. It is something that a person gains through learning. The classic definition of culture is given by E.B.Tylor in his book Primitive Culture in 1871. He stated “ Culture or Civilization, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” .
Definition of Civilization
Civilization is described as a process of civilizing or say developing the state of human society, to the extent that the culture, industry, technology, government, etc. reaches the maximum level. The term ‘civilization’ is derived from a Latin term ‘civis’ which indicates ‘someone who resides in a town’.
The term ‘civilization’ is not confined to town; rather it talks about adopting better ways of living, and making best possible use of nature’s resources, so as to satisfy the needs of the group of people. Further, it stresses on systematising society into various groups that work collectively and constantly to improve the quality of life, regarding food, education, dress, communication, transportation, and the like. Thus, the use of the term ‘civilization’ is different from its use in sociological or anthropological sense.
Defining civilization MacIver and Page (1962) said, ‘by civilization we mean the whole mechanism and organization which man has designed in his endeavour to control the conditions of life’.
Similarly, S.M. Fairchild (1908) argued that it is the higher stage of cultural development characterized by intellectual, aesthetic, technological and spiritual attainment. On the basis of this meaning, he made reference of ‘civilized peoples’ in contrast to ‘uncivilized or non-civilized peoples’.
A few scholars have equated civilization with technology and progress; e.g., Robert Bierstedt (1974) emphasized on sophistication, self-criticism and other awareness as the chief characteristics of civilization. Sociologists do not use the term ‘civilization’ in the sense stated above because all above views are value-loaded.
Thus, making a distinction between culture and civilization, the following points may be noted:
1. Culture is an end (values and goals) in itself while civilization is a means (tools and techniques) to an end. Cultural facts like belief, art and literature—prose, poetry or novel, etc., gives direct satisfaction to the reader while equipment’s of civilization such as cars, computers, refrigerators, etc., do not give direct satisfaction, until and unless they do not satisfy our wants. Thus, civilization is utilitarian. It just helps in achieving the end.
2. Culture has no value in itself but it is a measurement by which we can value other articles of civilization. We cannot determine the value of culture, i.e., beliefs, norms, ideas, etc., but the value of anything can be determined by its measurement standard. Culture is a measuring rod or weighing balance.
3. Civilization is always advancing but not culture. Cultural facts like dramatic plays or poems may not be necessarily better today than the plays or poems of Shakespeare?
4. Civilization is easily passed without much effort to the next generation but not culture. Cultural facts, e.g., any art or a piece of literature, cannot be learned without some intelligence. It requires a few pains to understand it. Contrary to it, the equipment’s of civilization (building, TV, etc.) can easily be inherited without much or any use of energy and intelligence.
5. Civilization may be borrowed without making any change but not culture. Borrowing any cultural fact like any political, economic or social belief requires some necessary alteration to adjust in the new cultural environment while this is not necessary to make any material change in the civilizational equipment’s such as TV, computer, etc.
6. Culture relates to the inner qualities of society like religion, customs, conventions, etc., while civilization relates to the outer form of society such as TV, radio, fans, etc.
7. Culture is more stable than civilization—cultural change takes place in years or in centuries but civilization changes very rapidly.
8. Variability of cultures may not be accompanied by variability of civilization at different places. Civilization may be similar in variable cultural areas. For instance, there is a great difference between American and Indian cultures but there are many similarities in their civilizational equipment’s.
9. Culture is a social fact, i.e., creation of the whole society while civilization, i.e., the invention of any equipment may be by a single individual. Any ordinary person can affect any change in the civilizational equipment but for any modification or alteration in any cultural fact requires the power and imagination of whole society.
There are scholars who have designated culture and civilization as the two sides of the same coin. William F. Ogburn (1964), in his theory of social change, pointed out two aspects of culture, viz., material and non-material. For him, material aspect represents civilization and the non-material aspect is the culture proper. Gillin and Gillin (1948) designated the material or tangible part of culture as civilization or culture equipment which man in his endeavor has modified from environment.
Attributes of Culture
In anthropology, culture is often analyzed through specific attributes such as norms, values, sanctions, and traits. These attributes help us understand how cultures function and maintain social order. Here’s an explanation of each attribute, along with examples to illustrate them.
1. Norms
Elaboration: Norms are the shared rules or guidelines that prescribe the appropriate behavior in particular situations within a culture. They are the expectations that dictate how individuals should act in various social contexts. Norms can be formal, such as laws and regulations, or informal, such as customs and traditions.
Types of Norms:
Folkways: These are norms for everyday behavior that people follow for the sake of convenience or tradition. Breaking a folkway usually results in minor consequences.
Mores: These are norms that are seen as vital to the welfare of society, often grounded in moral beliefs. Violating mores usually leads to stronger social disapproval.
Laws: These are formalized norms that are enforced by legal institutions. Breaking laws results in legal penalties.
Case Study:
Norms in Japanese Bowing: In Japan, bowing is a norm that reflects respect and social hierarchy. The depth and duration of a bow depend on the relationship between the individuals and the context (e.g., meeting someone for the first time, apologizing, or thanking). This practice is an example of a norm that governs social interactions and reinforces cultural values of respect and humility.
2. Values
Elaboration: Values are the deeply held beliefs that guide behavior and decision-making within a culture. They represent what is considered good, desirable, and important by a society. Values influence norms and are often expressed through them. While norms dictate specific behaviors, values provide the underlying rationale for those behaviors.
Case Study:
American Individualism: In the United States, individualism is a core value that emphasizes personal freedom, self-reliance, and independence. This value influences various aspects of American culture, from the importance placed on individual rights and free expression to the emphasis on personal achievement and success. The value of individualism shapes norms related to privacy, competition, and self-expression.
3. Sanctions
Elaboration: Sanctions are the reactions or responses to behavior that either encourage conformity to norms or punish deviance. Sanctions can be positive (rewards) or negative (punishments), and they play a crucial role in maintaining social order by reinforcing norms and values.
Types of Sanctions:
Positive Sanctions: Rewards or approval for following norms (e.g., praise, awards, promotions).
Negative Sanctions: Penalties or disapproval for violating norms (e.g., criticism, fines, imprisonment).
Case Study:
Sanctions in the Workplace: In many organizations, employees who adhere to norms such as punctuality, productivity, and teamwork are rewarded with promotions, bonuses, or public recognition (positive sanctions). Conversely, those who violate these norms may face reprimands, demotions, or even termination (negative sanctions). These sanctions reinforce the organization’s values of efficiency and cooperation.
4. Traits
Elaboration: Cultural traits are the smallest units of culture, representing specific aspects of a culture’s practices, beliefs, or objects. Traits can include anything from a particular type of food, a religious ritual, a language, or a piece of technology. Traits are the building blocks of culture, and when combined, they form larger cultural patterns.
Case Study:
Cultural Traits in Mexican Cuisine: Mexican cuisine includes various cultural traits such as the use of corn tortillas, chili peppers, and traditional cooking methods like nixtamalization (processing corn with lime). These traits contribute to the overall cultural pattern of Mexican culinary traditions, which are a significant part of Mexico’s cultural identity.
Interconnection of Norms, Values, Sanctions, and Traits:
Norms are shaped by values and enforced through sanctions. Traits are the specific practices or elements that manifest these norms and values in everyday life.
For example, the value of respect in Japanese culture is expressed through the norm of bowing. Sanctions for not following this norm might include social disapproval or being perceived as rude. The act of bowing itself is a cultural trait that embodies the broader cultural value.
5. Culture is Learned
Elaboration: Culture is not inherited biologically; it is learned through socialization and interaction with others in a society. From birth, individuals acquire cultural knowledge through language, observation, imitation, and participation in cultural practices. This learning process is ongoing and allows individuals to adapt to their cultural environment.
6. Culture is Shared
Elaboration: Culture is a collective phenomenon. It is shared among members of a group, giving them a common identity. This shared nature of culture creates social cohesion and helps maintain group solidarity. While individuals contribute to culture, it is the collective practices and beliefs that define it.
7. Culture is Symbolic
Elaboration: Culture is symbolic, meaning that it relies on symbols—objects, gestures, sounds, or images that represent specific ideas or concepts. Language is one of the most important symbolic systems in culture, but other symbols include religious icons, flags, and rituals. Symbols allow people to communicate complex ideas and values.
8. Culture is Integrated
Elaboration: Culture is an integrated system, meaning that various components of culture—such as religion, economy, family, and politics—are interconnected. A change in one aspect of culture often influences other parts. This integration ensures that culture functions cohesively.
9. Culture is Dynamic
Elaboration: Culture is not static; it changes over time in response to internal and external factors, such as technological advances, environmental changes, and interactions with other cultures. This dynamism allows cultures to adapt and survive in changing conditions.
10. Culture is Adaptive
Elaboration: Culture provides strategies that help communities adapt to their environment. These strategies include tools, practices, and social norms that enable people to survive and thrive in different ecological and social settings.
11. Culture is Based on Symbols
Elaboration: Symbols are an intrinsic part of culture. They are used to convey meanings, values, and norms. Symbols can be objects, gestures, words, or images that carry specific meanings recognized by people who share the same culture.
12. Culture is a Patterned System
Elaboration: Culture is organized into patterns that give it structure. These patterns include customs, traditions, and social norms that are consistently practiced and recognized within a society. This patterned nature of culture helps maintain order and predictability in social life.
13. Culture is Historically Derived
Elaboration: Culture is shaped by historical events and processes. The past experiences of a society, such as migration, colonization, or revolutions, leave lasting imprints on its culture. These historical influences shape the present cultural practices and identities.
These attributes of culture in anthropology illustrate the complexity and richness of human societies. Each attribute contributes to our understanding of how culture shapes and is shaped by the people who live within it, providing insights into the diversity of human cultural experience across the globe. These attributes—norms, values, sanctions, and traits—work together to create and sustain the social fabric of a culture. Understanding them provides insight into how cultures operate and how they maintain coherence and continuity over time